Practical approaches to reducing the glycemic index of low-amylose brown rice via water ratio and cooking method optimization
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Keywords
Abstract
Brown rice offers significant health benefits but is less favored than white rice due to its firm texture, longer cooking time, and shorter shelf life. Cooking methods such as steaming and microwave heating can alter starch properties and lower glycemic index (GI) by reducing starch digestibility (SD). This study investigated the effects of rice-to-water ratios and cooking methods on the chemical composition, degree of gelatinization (DG), SD, resistant starch (RS), and estimated GI (eGI) of cooked low-amylose brown rice (CBR). The findings showed that a 1:2 rice-to-water ratio considerably lowered DG (81.3%) and GI (67.94) compared to higher water ratios. However, cooking at a 1:3 ratio resulted in fully cooked CBR with higher DG (98.4%) and a softer texture. Among cooking methods using 1:3 rice-to-water ratio, steaming (CBR-ST) produced the lowest DG, SD, and eGI (74.43). Four methods including electric cooker (CBR-EC), microwave heating (CBR-MH), steaming (CBR-ST), and conventional straining (CBR-MT), were compared for their effects on composition, microstructure, texture, and eGI. Cooking method did not significantly affect total starch, RS, protein, fat, or fiber (p ≥ 0.05). Scanning electron microscopy revealed structural differences consistent with digestibility results, while texture analysis indicated greater firmness in CBR-ST and CBR-MH. These findings suggest that optimizing water ratios and cooking methods, particularly steaming, can reduce eGI in low-amylose brown rice while maintaining desirable texture, offering practical strategies for developing low-GI rice products for health-conscious consumers.
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Bett-Garber, K.L., Champagne, E.T., Ingram, D.A., & McClung, A.M. 2007. Influence of water-to-rice ratio on cooked rice flavor and texture. Cereal Chem. 84(6): 614–619. https://doi.org/10.1094/CCHEM-84-6-0614
Birch, G.G., Priestley, R.J. 1973. Degree of gelatinisation of cooked rice. Starch/Stärke, 25: 98–100.
Boers, H.M., Seijen Ten Hoorn, J., Mela, D.J. 2015. A systematic review of the influence of rice characteristics and processing methods on postprandial glycaemic and insulinaemic responses. Br. J. Nutr. 114(7): 1035–1045. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114515001841
Chapagai, M.K., Rosli, W.D., Manan, W.N., Jalil, R.A., Karrila, T.T., Pinkaew, S. 2017. Effect of domestic cooking methods on physicochemical, nutritional and sensory properties of different varieties of brown rice from Southern Thailand and Malaysia. Int. Food Res. J. 24(3): 1140–1147.
Cheng, Z., Qiao, D., Zhao, S., Zhang, B., Lin, Q., Xie, F. 2022. Whole grain rice: Updated understanding of starch digestibility and the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 21(4): 3244–3273. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12985
Chin, L., Therdthai, N., Ratphitagsanti, W. 2020. Effect of microwave cooking on quality of riceberry rice (Oryza sativa L.). J. Food Qual. 2020: 4350274. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/4350274
Chinachanta, K., Shutsrirung, A., Herrmann, L., Lesueur, D., Pathomaree, W. 2021. Enhancement of the aroma compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline in Thai jasmine rice (Oryza sativa L.) by rhizobacteria under salt stress. Biology. 10(10): 1065. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10101065
Deepa, G., Singh, V., Naidu, K.A. 2008. Nutrient composition and physicochemical properties of Indian medicinal rice—Njavara. Food Chem. 106(1): 165–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.05.062
Denardin, C.C., Walter, M., da Silva, L.P., Souto, G.D., Fagundes, C.A.A. 2007. Effect of amylose content of rice varieties on glycemic metabolism and biological responses in rats. Food Chem.. 105(4): 1474–1479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.05.028
de Souza Batista, C., Pozzada dos Santos, J., Lambrecht Dittgen, C., Colussi, R., Zaczuk Bassinello, P., Elias, M.C., Vanier, N.L. 2019. Impact of cooking temperature on the quality of quick cooking brown rice. Food Chem. 294: 125260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125260
Ershidat, O.T.M., Elsebaie, E.M., Badr, M.R. 2024. Impact of using plasma activated water in pan bread preparation on dough rheological characteristics and quality properties. J. Cereal Sci. 118: 103983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2024.103983
Fardet, A. 2010. New hypotheses for the health-protective mechanisms of whole-grain cereals: What is beyond fibre? Nutr. Res. Rev. 23(1): 65–134. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422410000041
Frei, M., Siddhuraju, P., Becker, K. 2003. Studies on the in vitro starch digestibility and the glycemic index of six different indigenous rice cultivars from the Philippines. Food Chem. 83(3): 395–402.
Goni, I., Alonso, A.G., Calixto, F.S. 1997. A starch hydrolysis procedure to estimate glycemic index. Nutr. Res. 17(3): 427–437.
Goni, I., Gracia-Diz, L., Manas, E., Saura-Calixto, F. 1996. Analysis of resistant starch: A method for foods and food products. Food Chem. 56: 333–337.
Han, S.H., Lee, S.W., Rhee, C. 2008. Effects of cooking methods on starch hydrolysis kinetics and digestion-resistant fractions of rice and soybean. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 227: 1315–1321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-008-0846-6
Heiniö, R.L., Noort, M.W.J., Katina, K., Alam, S.A., Sozer, N., de Kock, H.L., Hersleth, M., Poutanen, K. (2016). Sensory characteristics of wholegrain and bran-rich cereal foods—A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 47: 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2015.11.002
Juliano, B.O. 1993. Rice in human nutrition (FAO Food and Nutrition Series No. 26). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Jung, E.Y., Suh, H.J., Hong, W.S., Kim, D.G., Hong, Y.H., Hong, I.S., Chang, U.J. 2009. Uncooked rice of relatively low gelatinization degree resulted in lower metabolic glucose and insulin responses compared with cooked rice in female college students. Nutr. Res. 29(7): 457–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2009.07.002
Kaur, P., Kaur, H., Aggarwal, R., Bains, K., Mahal, A.K., Gupta, O. P., Singla, L.D., Singh, K. 2023. Effect of cooking and storage temperature on resistant starch in commonly consumed Indian wheat products and its effect upon blood glucose level. Front. Nutr. 10: 1284487. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1284487
Kim, M.J., Oh, S.G., Chung, H.J. 2017. Impact of heat-moisture treatment applied to brown rice flour on the quality and digestibility characteristics of Korean rice cake. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 26(6): 1579–1586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-017-0151-x
Kong, F., & Singh, R.P. 2008. Disintegration of solid foods in human stomach. J. Food Sci. 73(5): R67–R80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00766.x
Kozuka, C., Yabiku, K., Takayama, C., Matsushita, M., Shimabukuro, M., Masuzaki, H. 2013. Natural food science-based novel approach toward prevention and treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes: Recent studies on brown rice and γ-oryzanol. Obes. Res. Clin. Pract. 7(3): 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orcp.2013.02.003
Lee, S., Lee, J. 2005. Effect of various processing methods on the physical properties of cooked rice and on in vitro starch hydrolysis and blood glucose response in rats. Starch/Stärke. 57(11): 531–539. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.200400371
Li, H., Gidley, M.J., Dhital, S. 2019. High-amylose starches to bridge the “fiber gap”: Development, structure, and nutritional functionality. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 18(2): 362–379. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12416
Li, Y., Su, X., Shi, F., Wang, L., Chen, Z. 2017. High-temperature air-fluidization-induced changes in the starch texture, rheological properties, and digestibility of germinated brown rice. Starch/Stärke. 69(9–10): 1600328. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.201600328
Liu, H., Zhu, J., Gao, R., Ding, L., Yang, Y., Zhao, W., Cui, X., Lu, W., Wang, J., Li, Y. 2024. Estimating effects of whole grain consumption on type 2 diabetes, colorectal cancer and cardiovascular disease: a burden of proof study. Nutr. J. 23(1): 49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-024-00957-x
Loan, L.T.K., Vinh, B.T., Tai, N.V. 2024. Varieties and cooking conditions difference in quality of instant brown rice. Food Res.. 8(5): 341–347. https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.8(5).288
Lu, Z., Wei, Y., Tang, S., Xiao, L., Wang, M. 2015. Effect of washing and cooking on nutritional quality of brown rice. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 66(7): 797–803. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637486.2015.1056417
Mahadevamma, M., Tharanathan, R.N. 2007. Processed rice starches—present status and future directions: A review. Starch/Stärke. 59(5): 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.200600625
Ohtsubo, K., Suzuki, K., Yasui, Y., Kasumi, T. 2005. Bio-functional components in the processed pre-germinated brown rice by a twin-screw extruder. J. Food Compos. Anal. 18(4): 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2004.10.003
Patindol, J.A., Guraya, H.S., Champagne, E.T., Chen, M.H., McClung, A.M. 2010. Relationship of cooked-rice nutritionally important starch fractions with other physicochemical properties. Starch/Stärke. 62(5): 246–256. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.200900260
Photinam, R., Moongngarm, A. 2023. Effect of adding vegetable oils to starches from different botanical origins on physicochemical and digestive properties and amylose-lipid complex formation. J. Food Sci. Technol., 60(1), 393–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-022-05626-7
Ranawana, D.V., Henry, C.J., Lightowler, H.J., Wang, D. 2009. Glycemic index of some commercially available rice and rice products in Great Britain. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 60(4): 99–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637480802516191
Saleh, M.I., Meullenet, J.-F., Toker, T., Akash, M. 2017. Water to rice ratio and cooked rice texture's liking—Internal preference mapping approach. Qual. Assur. Saf. Crops Foods. 9(4): 291–297. https://doi.org/10.3920/QAS2016.1025
Sangwongchai, W., Tananuwong, K., Krusong, K., Thitisaksakul, M. 2021. Yield, grain quality, and starch physicochemical properties of 2 elite Thai rice cultivars grown under varying production systems and soil characteristics. Foods. 10(11): 2601. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10112601
Sapwarobol, S., Saphyakhajorn, W., Astina, J. 2021. Biological functions and activities of rice bran as a functional ingredient: A review. Nutr. Metab. Insights. 14. https://doi.org/10.1177/11786388211058559
Shahbandeh, M. 2019. Total global rice consumption 2008-2019. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/255977/total-global-rice-consumption/
Singh, N., Kaur, L., McCarthy, O.J., Singh, J. 2006. Relationship of starch structure to quality of rice. Starch/Stärke. 58(9): 475–490. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.200500538
Srisawas, W., & Jindal, V.K. 2007. Sensory evaluation of cooked rice in relation to water-to-rice ratio and physicochemical properties. J. Texture Stud. 38(1): 21–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.2007.00084.x
Vîrlan, A., Coșciug, L., Țurcanu, D., Siminiuc, R. 2024. The influence of rice types and boiling time on glycemic index: An in vivo evaluation using the ISO 2010 method. Foods. 14(1): 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14010012
Wang, H., Ding, J., Xiao, N., Liu, X., Zhang, Y., Zhang, H. 2020. Insights into the hierarchical structure and digestibility of starch in heat-moisture treated adlay seeds. Food Chem. 318, 126489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126489
Wang, H., Zhang, B., Chen, L., Li, X. 2016. Understanding the structure and digestibility of heat-moisture treated starch. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 88: 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.03.046
Wani, A.A., Tirtawijaya, J., Hosahalli, S., Tolpadi, A.M., Anbarasu, S. 2012. Rice starch diversity: Effects on structural, morphological, thermal, and physicochemical properties. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 11(3): 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2012.00193.x
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Pubblicato
Jun 17, 2026
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Come citare
Moongngarm, . A. ., Doamukda, N. ., & Loypimai, P. (2026). Practical approaches to reducing the glycemic index of low-amylose brown rice via water ratio and cooking method optimization. Italian Journal of Food Science, 38(2), 304–320. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v38i2.3366
Sezione
Original Article
Questo volume è pubblicato con la licenza Creative Commons Attribuzione - Non commerciale - Condividi allo stesso modo 4.0 Internazionale.
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Before publication, after the acceptance of the manuscript, Authors have to sign a Publication Agreement with "Italian Journal of Food Science", granting and assigning to "Italian Journal of Food Science" the perpetual right to distribute the work free of charge by any means and in any parts of the world, including the communication to the public through the journal website.
License for Published Contents
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Biografie autore
Prof.Dr.Anuchita Moongngarm, Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Faculty of Technology, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham 44150, Thailand
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Faculty of Technology, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham 44150, Thailand
Natcha Doamukda, Department of Nutrition, Nakhonphanom Hospital, Nakhonphanom 48000, Thailand
Department of Nutrition, Nakhonphanom Hospital, Nakhonphanom 48000, Thailand
Dr. Patiwit Loypimai, Division of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat University, Bangkok 10600, Thailand
Division of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat University, Bangkok 10600, Thailand
Come citare
Moongngarm, . A. ., Doamukda, N. ., & Loypimai, P. (2026). Practical approaches to reducing the glycemic index of low-amylose brown rice via water ratio and cooking method optimization. Italian Journal of Food Science, 38(2), 304–320. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v38i2.3366