Protein digestibility of human milk, cow milk and goat milk in the in vitro static infant digestion simulation
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Keywords
Abstract
Although the importance of human milk is well known, the search for alternatives continues today. Among these alternatives, goat and cow milk, which are industrial species, are in the first place. The literature has primarily focused on the digestive behaviour of human milk and infant formulas. In this study, the digestive behaviours of human, goat, and cow milks were examined at different stages of an infant digestion simulation. Throughout gastrointestinal digestion, a decrease in particle size was observed in human milk, whereas an increase in particle size was detected in cow and goat milk. The pH values of human milk, cow milk, and goat milk were determined to be 6.66, 6.79, and 6.71, respectively. The dry matter content was reported as 11.75%, 13.62%, and 11.0%. In addition to structural changes, significant increases in antioxidant capacity and ACE inhibitory activity (%) were observed during digestion, particularly in cow and goat milk. These biofunctional developments will shed light on the health benefits of cow and goat milk, as well as their potential use in the development of infant formulas. Characterisation of cow and goat milk digestive behaviour in situations of human milk deficiency will contribute to the development of new infant formulas and alternative products.
Riferimenti bibliografici
Altun, D., & Sarici, S. U. (2017). Goat milk: Should it be the first choice in infant nutrition? Journal of Child Health and Diseases, 60(1).
AOAC. (2003). Official methods of analysis (17th ed.; W. Horwitz, Ed.). Association of Official Analytical Chemists International.
Apak, R., Güçlü, K., Özyürek, M., & Karademir, S. E. (2004). Novel total antioxidant capacity index for dietary polyphenols and vitamins C and E, using their cupric ion reducing capability in the presence of neocuproine: CUPRAC method. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52, 7970–7981. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf048741x
Atyeo, C., & Alter, G. (2021). The multifaceted roles of breast milk antibodies. Cell, 184(6), 1486–1499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.02.031
Boland, M., & Singh, H. (Eds.). (2019). Milk proteins: From expression to food. Academic Press.
Brodkorb, A., Egger, L., Alminger, M., Alvito, P., Assunção, R., Ballance, S., & Recio, I. (2019). INFOGEST static in vitro simulation of gastrointestinal food digestion. Nature Protocols, 14(4), 991–1014. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41596-018-0119-1
Clark, S., & Mora Garcia, M. B. (2017). A 100-year review: Advances in goat milk research. Journal of Dairy Science, 100, 10026–10044. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-13287
Dhasmana, S., Das, S., & Shrivastava, S. (2022). Potential nutraceuticals from the casein fraction of goat’s milk. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 46(6), e13982. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13982
Eigel, W. N., Butler, J. E., Ernstrom, C. A., Farrell Jr., H. M., Harwalkar, V. R., Jenness, R., & Whitney, R. M. (1984). Nomenclature of proteins of cow’s milk: Fifth revision. Journal of Dairy Science, 67(8), 1599–1631. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(84)81485-X
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). (2012). Scientific opinion on the suitability of goat milk protein as a source of protein in infant formulae and in follow-on formulae. EFSA Journal, 10, 2603. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2603
El-Hatmi, H., Jrad, Z., Salhi, I., Aguibi, A., Nadri, A., & Khorchani, T. (2015). Comparison of composition and whey protein fractions of human, camel, donkey, goat, and cow milk. Mljekarstvo, 65(3). https://doi.org/10.15567/mljekarstvo.2015.0302
Gallier, S., Vocking, K., Post, J. A., van de Heijning, B., Acton, D., van der Beek, E. M., et al. (2015). A novel infant milk formula concept: Mimicking the human milk fat globule structure. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 136, 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.09.024
He, T., Rombouts, W., Einerhand, A. W. C., Hotrum, N., & van de Velde, F. (2022). Gastric protein digestion of goat and cow milk infant formula and human milk under simulated infant conditions. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 73(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637486.2021.1921705
Huppertz, T., & Chia, L. W. (2021). Milk protein coagulation under gastric conditions: A review. International Dairy Journal, 113, 104882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104882
Inglingstad, R. A., Devold, T. G., Eriksen, E. K., Holm, H., Jacobsen, M., Liland, K. H., & Vegarud, G. E. (2010). Comparison of the digestion of caseins and whey proteins in equine, bovine, caprine, and human milks by human gastrointestinal enzymes. Dairy Science & Technology, 90(5), 549–563. https://doi.org/10.1051/dst/2010018
Kartal, T., & Gürsoy, E. (2020). The importance of breastfeeding in the context of Sustainable Development Goals (2015–2030) and the role of nurses in light of the current situation in Turkey. Mersin University Faculty of Medicine Lokman Hekim Journal of Medical History and Folkloric Medicine, 10(2), 147–153. https://doi.org/10.31020/mutftd.676389
Kumar, A., & Sharma, A. (2016). Nutritional and medicinal superiority of goat milk over cow milk in infants. International Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 2(1), 47–50. https://doi.org/10.21088/ijpen.2454.9126.2116.5
Lin, J., Liu, C., Bai, R., Pang, J., Li, J., Zhang, C., & Hu, S. (2024). The application of in vitro static digestive models simulating the digestion system of infants and young children for the development of accessory food: Current status and future perspective. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 143, 104306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2023.104306
Liu, Y., Liu, Q., Zhao, J., Qiao, W., Liu, B., Yang, B., & Chen, L. (2023). Comparison of phospholipid composition and microstructure of milk fat globules contained in human milk and infant formulae. Food Chemistry, 415, 135762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135762
Ménard, O., Bourlieu, C., de Oliveira, S. C., Dellarosa, N., Laghi, L., Carrière, F., & Deglaire, A. (2018). A first step towards a consensus static in vitro model for simulating full-term infant digestion. Food Chemistry, 240, 338–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.07.145
Minekus, M., Alminger, M., Alvito, P., Ballance, S., Bohn, T., Bourlieu, C., Carrière, F., Boutrou, R., Corredig, M., et al. (2014). A standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food: An international consensus. Food & Function, 5, 1113–1124. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3FO60702J
O’Callaghan, D. M., O’Mahony, J. A., Ramanujam, K. S., & Burgher, A. M. (2011). Dehydrated dairy products: Infant formulae. In J. W. Fuquay (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (2nd ed., pp. 135–145). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374407-4.00124-2
Park, Y. W. (1994). Hypo-allergenic and therapeutic significance of goat milk. Small Ruminant Research, 14(2), 151–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-4488(94)90105-8
Prosser, C. G. (2021). Compositional and functional characteristics of goat milk and relevance as a base for infant formula. Journal of Food Science, 86(2), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15574
Renner, S. S. (1993). Phylogeny and classification of the Melastomataceae and Memecylaceae. Nordic Journal of Botany, 13(5), 519–540. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-1051.1993.tb00096.x
Roy, D., Ye, A., Moughan, P. J., & Singh, H. (2020). Gelation of milks of different species (dairy cattle, goat, sheep, red deer, and water buffalo) using glucono-δ-lactone and pepsin. Journal of Dairy Science, 103(7), 5844–5862. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17571
Shalaby, A. M., Khattab, Y. A., & Abdel Rahman, A. M. (2006). Effects of garlic (Allium sativum) and chloramphenicol on growth performance, physiological parameters, and survival of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases, 12, 172–201. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1678-91992006000200003.
Sun, Y., Wang, C., Sun, X., & Guo, M. (2019). Protein digestion properties of Xinong Saanen goat colostrum and mature milk using an in vitro digestion model. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 99(13), 5819–5825. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9852.
Wang, F., Chen, M., Luo, R., Huang, G., Wu, X., Zheng, N., & Wang, J. (2022). Fatty acid profiles of milk from Holstein cows, Jersey cows, buffalos, yaks, humans, goats, camels, and donkeys based on gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Journal of Dairy Science, 105(2), 1687–1700. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2021-20750
Zhao, P., Yang, X., Li, D., Zhang, X., Wei, W., Jin, Q., & Wang, X. (2023). Development of in vitro digestion simulation of the gastrointestinal tract to evaluate lipolysis and proteolysis: Comparison of infant model digestion of breast milk and adult model digestion of cow milk. Food Hydrocolloids, 142, 108859.
AOAC. (2003). Official methods of analysis (17th ed.; W. Horwitz, Ed.). Association of Official Analytical Chemists International.
Apak, R., Güçlü, K., Özyürek, M., & Karademir, S. E. (2004). Novel total antioxidant capacity index for dietary polyphenols and vitamins C and E, using their cupric ion reducing capability in the presence of neocuproine: CUPRAC method. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52, 7970–7981. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf048741x
Atyeo, C., & Alter, G. (2021). The multifaceted roles of breast milk antibodies. Cell, 184(6), 1486–1499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.02.031
Boland, M., & Singh, H. (Eds.). (2019). Milk proteins: From expression to food. Academic Press.
Brodkorb, A., Egger, L., Alminger, M., Alvito, P., Assunção, R., Ballance, S., & Recio, I. (2019). INFOGEST static in vitro simulation of gastrointestinal food digestion. Nature Protocols, 14(4), 991–1014. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41596-018-0119-1
Clark, S., & Mora Garcia, M. B. (2017). A 100-year review: Advances in goat milk research. Journal of Dairy Science, 100, 10026–10044. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-13287
Dhasmana, S., Das, S., & Shrivastava, S. (2022). Potential nutraceuticals from the casein fraction of goat’s milk. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 46(6), e13982. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13982
Eigel, W. N., Butler, J. E., Ernstrom, C. A., Farrell Jr., H. M., Harwalkar, V. R., Jenness, R., & Whitney, R. M. (1984). Nomenclature of proteins of cow’s milk: Fifth revision. Journal of Dairy Science, 67(8), 1599–1631. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(84)81485-X
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). (2012). Scientific opinion on the suitability of goat milk protein as a source of protein in infant formulae and in follow-on formulae. EFSA Journal, 10, 2603. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2603
El-Hatmi, H., Jrad, Z., Salhi, I., Aguibi, A., Nadri, A., & Khorchani, T. (2015). Comparison of composition and whey protein fractions of human, camel, donkey, goat, and cow milk. Mljekarstvo, 65(3). https://doi.org/10.15567/mljekarstvo.2015.0302
Gallier, S., Vocking, K., Post, J. A., van de Heijning, B., Acton, D., van der Beek, E. M., et al. (2015). A novel infant milk formula concept: Mimicking the human milk fat globule structure. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 136, 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.09.024
He, T., Rombouts, W., Einerhand, A. W. C., Hotrum, N., & van de Velde, F. (2022). Gastric protein digestion of goat and cow milk infant formula and human milk under simulated infant conditions. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 73(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637486.2021.1921705
Huppertz, T., & Chia, L. W. (2021). Milk protein coagulation under gastric conditions: A review. International Dairy Journal, 113, 104882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104882
Inglingstad, R. A., Devold, T. G., Eriksen, E. K., Holm, H., Jacobsen, M., Liland, K. H., & Vegarud, G. E. (2010). Comparison of the digestion of caseins and whey proteins in equine, bovine, caprine, and human milks by human gastrointestinal enzymes. Dairy Science & Technology, 90(5), 549–563. https://doi.org/10.1051/dst/2010018
Kartal, T., & Gürsoy, E. (2020). The importance of breastfeeding in the context of Sustainable Development Goals (2015–2030) and the role of nurses in light of the current situation in Turkey. Mersin University Faculty of Medicine Lokman Hekim Journal of Medical History and Folkloric Medicine, 10(2), 147–153. https://doi.org/10.31020/mutftd.676389
Kumar, A., & Sharma, A. (2016). Nutritional and medicinal superiority of goat milk over cow milk in infants. International Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 2(1), 47–50. https://doi.org/10.21088/ijpen.2454.9126.2116.5
Lin, J., Liu, C., Bai, R., Pang, J., Li, J., Zhang, C., & Hu, S. (2024). The application of in vitro static digestive models simulating the digestion system of infants and young children for the development of accessory food: Current status and future perspective. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 143, 104306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2023.104306
Liu, Y., Liu, Q., Zhao, J., Qiao, W., Liu, B., Yang, B., & Chen, L. (2023). Comparison of phospholipid composition and microstructure of milk fat globules contained in human milk and infant formulae. Food Chemistry, 415, 135762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135762
Ménard, O., Bourlieu, C., de Oliveira, S. C., Dellarosa, N., Laghi, L., Carrière, F., & Deglaire, A. (2018). A first step towards a consensus static in vitro model for simulating full-term infant digestion. Food Chemistry, 240, 338–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.07.145
Minekus, M., Alminger, M., Alvito, P., Ballance, S., Bohn, T., Bourlieu, C., Carrière, F., Boutrou, R., Corredig, M., et al. (2014). A standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food: An international consensus. Food & Function, 5, 1113–1124. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3FO60702J
O’Callaghan, D. M., O’Mahony, J. A., Ramanujam, K. S., & Burgher, A. M. (2011). Dehydrated dairy products: Infant formulae. In J. W. Fuquay (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (2nd ed., pp. 135–145). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374407-4.00124-2
Park, Y. W. (1994). Hypo-allergenic and therapeutic significance of goat milk. Small Ruminant Research, 14(2), 151–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/0921-4488(94)90105-8
Prosser, C. G. (2021). Compositional and functional characteristics of goat milk and relevance as a base for infant formula. Journal of Food Science, 86(2), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15574
Renner, S. S. (1993). Phylogeny and classification of the Melastomataceae and Memecylaceae. Nordic Journal of Botany, 13(5), 519–540. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-1051.1993.tb00096.x
Roy, D., Ye, A., Moughan, P. J., & Singh, H. (2020). Gelation of milks of different species (dairy cattle, goat, sheep, red deer, and water buffalo) using glucono-δ-lactone and pepsin. Journal of Dairy Science, 103(7), 5844–5862. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17571
Shalaby, A. M., Khattab, Y. A., & Abdel Rahman, A. M. (2006). Effects of garlic (Allium sativum) and chloramphenicol on growth performance, physiological parameters, and survival of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases, 12, 172–201. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1678-91992006000200003.
Sun, Y., Wang, C., Sun, X., & Guo, M. (2019). Protein digestion properties of Xinong Saanen goat colostrum and mature milk using an in vitro digestion model. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 99(13), 5819–5825. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9852.
Wang, F., Chen, M., Luo, R., Huang, G., Wu, X., Zheng, N., & Wang, J. (2022). Fatty acid profiles of milk from Holstein cows, Jersey cows, buffalos, yaks, humans, goats, camels, and donkeys based on gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Journal of Dairy Science, 105(2), 1687–1700. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2021-20750
Zhao, P., Yang, X., Li, D., Zhang, X., Wei, W., Jin, Q., & Wang, X. (2023). Development of in vitro digestion simulation of the gastrointestinal tract to evaluate lipolysis and proteolysis: Comparison of infant model digestion of breast milk and adult model digestion of cow milk. Food Hydrocolloids, 142, 108859.
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Jan 15, 2026
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Saygili, D. (2026). Protein digestibility of human milk, cow milk and goat milk in the in vitro static infant digestion simulation. Italian Journal of Food Science, 38(1), 349–358. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v38i1.3297
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Come citare
Saygili, D. (2026). Protein digestibility of human milk, cow milk and goat milk in the in vitro static infant digestion simulation. Italian Journal of Food Science, 38(1), 349–358. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v38i1.3297