Rapid detection of adulteration in powdered camel milk using ATR-IR spectroscopy and chemometrics
Main Article Content
Keywords
Adulteration, Camel milk powder, Chemometrics, MIR, PLSR
Abstract
As global interest in camel milk rises because of its nutritional benefits, it is increasingly processed into powder to increase shelf life and transport. However, adulteration with cow milk powder poses a serious food safety issue. This study developed multivariate models using attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy (ATR-IR) to detect adulteration in camel milk powder with cow milk powder. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) was applied after preprocessing, which included Savitzky–Golay (SG) smoothing (first and second derivatives) and multiplicative scatter correction (MSC), to quantify adulteration levels ranging from 0% (control) to 50% (w/w). Preprocessing techniques, including SG smoothing (first and second derivatives) and multiplicative scatter correction (MSC), enhanced model performance. Calibration achieved an R2 of ≥99.6% and RMSE <0.93, while cross-validation yielded an R2 of ≥99.3% and RMSE <1.35. External validation confirmed the model’s reliability with R2 >98% and RMSE <1.8. Deviations remained low across all adulteration levels, even at higher concentrations (≈0.76–0.90 for 40%). These results demonstrate that ATR-FTIR spectroscopy combined with PLSR offers a rapid, nondestructive, and reliable method for detecting adulteration in camel milk powder, making it a valuable tool for quality control in the dairy industry.
References
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Ait El Alia O., Salah C., Zakariae H., Yassine Z.E., Aimen E.O., Khalid B. 2025. Omics approaches for the authentication of camel milk. Int. Dairy J. 161(November 2024): 106131. 10.1016/j.idairyj.2024.106131
Ait El Alia O., Abdennacer E.M., Soumaya B., Morad K., Khalid B., Aimen E.O. 2025. Raman spectroscopy coupled with chemometric techniques for authenticity assessment of camel milk powder. J. AOAC Int. August. 10.1093/jaoacint/qsaf075
Ait El Alia O., Yassine Z.E., Nouhaila A., Fouzia K., Abdelkhalek O., Khalid B. 2023. Optimization of camel milk coagulation: The use of coagulants of microbiological and plant origin. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Technologia Alimentaria 22 (1): 81–91. 10.17306/J.AFS.1106
Ait El Alia O., Yassine Z.E., Salah C., Soumaya B., Khalid B., Bernard F. 2025. Global camel milk industry: A comprehensive overview of production, consumption trends, market evolution, and value chain efficiency. Small Rumin. Res. 243(January): 107441. 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2025.107441
Ait El Alia O. Yassine Z.E., Fouzia K., Abdelkhalek O., Khalid B. 2023. Towards the improvement of camel milk consumption in Morocco. Small Rumin. Res. 219(November 2022): 106888. 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2022.106888
Ait El Alia O., Yassine Z.E., Said S., Salah C., Irfan A.A., Zaker R.M., Fouzia K., Abdelkhalek O., Siddique A.A., Khalid B. 2024. Investigating the potential of Fourier transform mid-infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometrics for detecting camel’s milk adulteration. IJFS. 36(2): 150–62. 10.15586/ijfs.v36i2.2500
Ali Z., Farah N.T., Hassan I.A., Farooq A., Nazir A.B., Habibullah A. 2025. Analytical approaches and advancement in the analysis of natural and synthetic fiber: A comprehensive review. SAA. 326(February): 125164. 10.1016/j.saa.2024.125164
AlYammahi J., Rambabu K., Thanigaivelan A., Shadi W.H., Hanifa T., Pau L.S., Fawzi B. 2023. Production and characterization of camel milk powder enriched with date extract. LWT. 179(February): 114636. 10.1016/j.lwt.2023.114636
Balan B., Amit S.D., Rahul J., Amit, Kushneet K.S., Simon K., Andrew C., Dileep K.S. 2020. Application of attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy coupled with chemometrics for detection and quantification of formalin in cow milk. Vib. Spectrosc. 107(March): 103033. 10.1016/j.vibspec.2020.103033
Barrera Morelli J., Cushla M., Michel N., Stephen E.H., Lisa I.P. 2025. Chemometric techniques for the orediction of milk composition from MIR spectral data: A review. Food Chem. 469(March): 142465. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.142465
Bazzoli C., Sophie L.L., Marie-José M. 2023. Partial least square based approaches for high-dimensional linear mixed models. SMA. 32(3): 769–86. 10.1007/s10260-023-00685-2
Biancolillo A., Federico M., Cyril R., Raffaele V. 2020. Chemometric strategies for spectroscopy-based food authentication. Appl. Sci. 10(18): 6544. 10.3390/app10186544
Bondoc I., and Șindilar E.V. 2002. Veterinary sanitary control of food quality and hygiene (Controlul Sanitar Veterinar Al Calit Ații Și Salubritații Alimentelor-Original Title). Ion Ionescu de La Brad. In Iaș Romania: Ion Ionescu de La, 151–66. Brad University Publishing. https://scholar.google.ro/citations?user=-dUf6oYAAAAJ&hl=ro
Bondoc, I. 2007. Technology and Quality Control of Milk and Dairy Products. Iași Publishing. https://scholar.google.ro/citations?user=-dUf6oYAAAAJ&hl=ro
Cheikh Ismail L., Tareq M.O., Maysm N.M., Hala Z., Aaesha A., Asma T., Alizeh A., Mohamed A.A.A., Sheima T.S., Rameez A.D., Radhiya A., Lily S., Ayesha S.A.D. Camel milk consumption patterns and perceptions in the UAE: A cross-sectional study. J. Nutr. Sci. 11(July): e59. 10.1017/jns.2022.55
Chen M., Wang G., Xinqiang Y., Qianxi J., Xinjun H., Jianheng P., Jianping T. 2025. Hyperspectral imaging combined with convolutional neural network for Pu’er ripe tea origin recognition. J. Food Compos. Anal. 139(March): 107093. 10.1016/j.jfca.2024.107093
Du C., Xue H.Z., Chu C., Liang K.N., Xiao L.R., Lei Y., Xiao J.Z., Shu J.Z., Zhan W.T. 2025. Identification and quantification of goat milk adulteration using mid-infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. SAA. 324 (August 2024): 124969. 10.1016/j.saa.2024.124969
Ehlayel M.S., Khalid A.H., Fatima A.M., Abdulbari B. 2011. Camel milk: An alternative for cow’s milk allergy in children. Allergy Asthma Proc. 32(3): 255–58. 10.2500/aap.2011.32.3429
FAOSTAT. 2024. Food and Agiculture Organization of the United Nations. 2024. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/
Faye B., and Gaukhar K. 2024. Camel milk composition and future market potential. CAB Rev. 19(1): 1–9. 10.1079/cabireviews.2024.0021
Faye B., Gaukhar K., Mohammed B. 2019. Vitamins of camel milk: A comprehensive review. JCS. 12: 17–32.
Grassi S., Maria T., Alessandro D.A., Sofia A., Lorenzo S., Theodoros V. 2022. How chemometrics can fight milk adulteration. Foods. 12(1): 139. 10.3390/foods12010139
Gu S., Niannian C., Jing Z., Xiaoyu P., Min Z., Yu G., Lina P., et al. 2024. Identifying animal-derived components in camel milk and its products by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Chin. J. Chromatogr. 42(1): 13–23. 10.3724/SP.J.1123.2023.07027
Hayes E., Derek G., Colm O.D., Norah O.S., Mark A.F. 2023. Spectroscopic technologies and data fusion: Applications for the dairy industry. Front. Nutr. 9 (January). 10.3389/fnut.2022.1074688
Hernanda R.A.P., Juntae K., Mohammad A.F., Hanim Z.A., Byoung-Kwan C., Moon S.K., Insuck B., Hoonsoo L. 2025. Rapid and noncontact identification of soybean flour in edible insect using NIR spectral imager: A case study in protaetia brevitarsis seulensis powder. FC. 169(March): 111019. 10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.111019
Ho T.M., Zhengzheng Z., Nidhi B.. 2022. Camel milk: A review of its nutritional value, heat stability, and potential food products. Food Res. Int. 153: 110870. 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110870
Hussain H., Feroza H.W., Muhammad H.S.W., Muhammad G., Tariq M., Imam S., Sakhawat A., Seyed E.A. 2021. Camel milk as an alternative treatment regimen for diabetes therapy. Food Res. Int. 9(3): 1347–56. 10.1002/fsn3.2078
Konuspayeva G., and Bernard F. 2021. Recent advances in camel milk processing. Animals. 11(4): 1045. 10.3390/ani11041045
Konuspayeva G., Bernard F., Mohammed B. 2022. Mineral status in camel milk: A critical review. Anim. Front. 12 (4): 52–60. 10.1093/af/vfac044
Li L., Jun W., Minjing L., Yingchun Y., Zhixuan W., Jing M., Zhongkai Z., Jie Y. 2021. Detection of the adulteration of camel milk powder with cow milk by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). Int. Dairy J. 121(October): 105117. 10.1016/j.idairyj.2021.105117
Liu Z., and Simone R.. 2023. Lipidomics in milk: Recent advances and developments. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 51(June): 101016. 10.1016/j.cofs.2023.101016
Mabood F., Farah J., Javid H., Ahmed A.H., Ahmad H., Saaida A.A.A.M.i, Zainb M.A. Al R., et al. 2017. FT-NIRS coupled with chemometric methods as a rapid alternative tool for the detection & amp; quantification of cow milk adulteration in camel milk samples. Vib. Spectrosc. 92(September): 245–50. 10.1016/j.vibspec.2017.07.004
Mafra I., Mónica H., Joana S.A. 2022. Animal species authentication in dairy products. Foods. 11(8): 1124. 10.3390/foods11081124
Mohamed H., Peter N., Jelena A., Afaf K.E. 2021. Use of near and mid infra-red spectroscopy for analysis of protein, fat, lactose and total solids in raw cow and camel milk. Food Chem. 334(June 2020): 127436. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127436
Mohan G., Vakul G., Amrit R., Ramandeep K. 2020. Consumer acceptance of camel milk in emerging economy. JIFAM. 32(1): 54–68. 10.1080/08974438.2018.1549521
Mrabet A.E., Aimen E.O., Abderrahim D., Lamiae A., Amal A.H.S., Mustapha B., Ibrahim S.E.O. 2025. Application of multivariate data analysis methods for rapid detection and quantification of adulterants in lavender essential oil using infrared spectroscopy. Flavour Fragr. J. 40(1): 103–13. 10.1002/ffj.3818
Mrabet, A.E., Aimen E.O., Abderrahim D., Joel B.J, Amal A.H.S., Mustapha B., Ibrahim S.E. 2024. Rapid analysis of eucalyptus oil adulteration in Moroccan rosemary essential oil via GC-FID and mid-infrared spectroscopy. Vib. Spectrosc. 132(May): 103674. 10.1016/j.vibspec.2024.103674
Muthukumaran M.S., Priti M., Waqas N.B., Mohammed A.A., Sajid M. 2023. A comprehensive review on health benefits, nutritional composition and processed products of camel milk. Food Rev. Int. 39(6): 3080–3116. 10.1080/87559129.2021.2008953
Orche A.E., Abdennacer E.M., Amal A.H.S., Soumaya M., Omar E., Siddique A.A., Hamad M.A., Shoeb A.A., Ibrahim S.E.O., Mustapha B. 2024. Integration of FTIR spectroscopy, volatile compound profiling, and chemometric techniques for advanced geographical and varietal analysis of Moroccan eucalyptus essential oils. Sensors. 24(22): 7337. 10.3390/s24227337
Pinto P.A., Amanda C.S.A.A., Luiz R.d.A., Elisângela J.M., Cleiton A.N. 2021. Strategies to determine lactose in cow milk by mid infrared spectroscopy. J. Food Compos. Anal. 104(June): 104176. 10.1016/j.jfca.2021.104176
Qin C., Lei L., Yu W., Tuo L., Mengting Z., Bei G., Jianhua X., Qiang Y., Yi C. 2022. Advancement of omics techniques for chemical profile analysis and authentication of milk. TIFS. 127(June): 114–28. 10.1016/j.tifs.2022.06.001
Rakhmatulina A., Fatima D., Dinara T., Jelena Z., Nurbek A., Kristine M., Aidana Y. 2024. Advancements in camel milk drying technology: A comprehensive review of methods, chemical composition, and nutritional preservation. Dairy. 5(3): 360–71. 10.3390/dairy5030029
Saji R., Akshay R., Kamal G., Raman S., Rajan S. 2024. Application of FTIR spectroscopy in dairy products: A systematic review. Food and Humanity. 2(December 2023): 100239. 10.1016/j.foohum.2024.100239
Santos P.M., Pereira-Filho E.R., Rodriguez-Saona L.E. 2013. Rapid detection and quantification of milk adulteration using infrared microspectroscopy and chemometrics analysis. Food Chem. 138(1): 19–24. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.10.024
Shi S., Zihan T., Yingying M., Cougui C., Yang J. 2025. Application of spectroscopic techniques combined with chemometrics to the authenticity and quality attributes of rice. Crit Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 65(5): 913–35. 10.1080/10408398.2023.2284246
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Jan 1, 2026
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Ait El Alia, O., El Orche, A., Kaddouri, M., Boukrouh, S., El Mrabet, A., Bouhrim, M., A. Nasr, F., Al-Zharani, M., Ahmed Qurtam, A., & Boutoial, K. (2026). Rapid detection of adulteration in powdered camel milk using ATR-IR spectroscopy and chemometrics. Italian Journal of Food Science, 38(1), 202-211. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v38i1.3188
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How to Cite
Ait El Alia, O., El Orche, A., Kaddouri, M., Boukrouh, S., El Mrabet, A., Bouhrim, M., A. Nasr, F., Al-Zharani, M., Ahmed Qurtam, A., & Boutoial, K. (2026). Rapid detection of adulteration in powdered camel milk using ATR-IR spectroscopy and chemometrics. Italian Journal of Food Science, 38(1), 202-211. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v38i1.3188