EDIBLE ALLIUM SPECIES: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND HEALTH EFFECTS
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
Keywords
Abstract
Since ancient times edible Alliums play an important role in human diet and traditional medicine. The most commonly cultivated Allium species are onion (Allium cepa L), garlic (Allium sativum L), leek (Allium ampeloprasum L.), chive (Allium schoenoprasum L) and Welsh or Japanese bunching onion (Allium fistulosum L.). These species are rich sources of biologically active compounds such as flavonoids, organosulfur compounds and saponins. Numerous studies we reviewed in this paper, confirmed their significant antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative and anticancer activities, which makes them an important source of phytonutrients that can contribute to the protection and preservation of human health.
Riferimenti bibliografici
Adams-Campbell L.L. 2011. Use of multivitamins, folic acid and herbal supplements among breast cancer survivors: the black woman's health study. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 11:30.
Adão C.R., da Silva B.P. and Parente J.P. 2011. A new steroidal saponin with anti-inflammatory and antiulcerogenic properties from the bulbs of Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum. Fitoterapia 82:1175-1180.
Ahiabor C., Gordon A., Ayittey K. and Agyare R. 2016. In vitro assessment of antibacterial activity of crude extracts of onion (Allium cepa L.) and shallot (Allium aescalonicum L.) on isolates of Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), and Salmonella typhi (ATCC 19430). Int. J. Appl. Res. 2(5):1029-1032.
Albishia T., John J.A.,. Al-Khalifa A.S., Shahidi F. 2013. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and DNA scission inhibitory activities of phenolic compounds in selected onion and potato varieties. J. Funct. Foods 5(2):930-939.
Altundal E.M., KasacJ T., YJlmaz A.M., Betül Karademir B., Koçtürk S., Taga Y. and YalçJn A.S. 2016. Quercetin-Induced Cell Death in Human Papillary Thyroid Cancer (B-CPAP) Cells. J. Thyroid Res. Article ID 9843675.
Ali M. 1995. Mechanism by which garlic (Allium sativum) inhibits cyclooxygenase activity. Effect of raw versus boiled garlic extract on the synthesis of prostanoids. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 53:397-400.
Ali M., Thomson M. and Afzal M. 2000. Garlic and onions: their effect on eicosanoid metabolism and its clinical relevance. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 62:55-73.
Ankri S. and Mirelman D. 1999. Antimicrobial properties of allicin from garlic. Microbes Infect. 1:125-9.
Antony M.L. and Singh S.V. 2011. Molecular mechanisms and targets of cancer chemoprevention by garlic-derived bioactive compound diallyl trisulfide. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 49:805-816.
Aquilano K., Vigilanza P., Filomeni G., Rotilio G. and Ciriolo M.R. 2010. Tau dephosphorylation and microfilaments disruption are upstream events of the anti-proliferative effects of DADS in SH-SY5Y cells. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 14(3):564-577.
Ashraf R., Khan R.A. and Ashraf I. 2011. Garlic (Allium sativum) supplementation with standard antidiabetic agent provides better diabetic control in type 2 diabetes patients. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. 24:565-570.
Atashpour S., Fouladdel S. and Movahhed T.K. 2015. Quercetin induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in CD133(+) cancer stem cells of human colorectal HT29 cancer cell line and enhances anticancer effects of doxorubicin. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 18(7):635-643.
Augusti K. 1990. Therapeutic and medicinal values of onions and garlic. In "Onions and Allied Crops". H.D. Rabinowitch and J.L. Brewster (Ed.), pp. 93-108. Vol: III: Biochemistry Food Science Minor Crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
Bakht J., Khan S. and Shafi M. 2013. Antimicrobial potential of fresh Allium cepa against gram positive and gram negative bacteria and fungi. Pak.J. Bot 45:1-6.
Bakri I.M. and Douglas C.W.I. 2005. Inhibitory effect of garlic extract on oral bacteria. Arch. Oral Biol. 50:645-651.
Belman S. and Solomon J., Segal A., Block E., Barany G. 1989. Inhibition of soybean lipoxygenase and mouse skin tumor promotion by onion and garlic components. J. Biochem. Toxicol. 4:151-160.
Benekeblia N. 2004. Antimicrobial activity of essential oil extracts of various onions (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum). LWT -Food Sci. Technol. 37:263-268.
Bianchini F. and Vainio H. 2001. Allium vegetables and organosulfur compounds: do they help prevent cancer? Environ. Health Perspect. 109:893-902.
Block G., Patterson B. and Subar A. 1992. Fruit, vegetables, and cancer prevention: A review of the epidemiological evidence. Nutr. Cancer 18:1-29.
Boivin D., Lamy S., Lord-Dufour S., Jackson J., Beaulieu E., Côté M., Moghrabi A., Barrette S., Gingras D. and Béliveau R. 2009. Antiproliferative and antioxidant activities of common vegetables: A comparative study. Food Chem. 112:374-380.
Borkowska A., Knap N. and Antosiewicz J. 2013. Diallyl Trisulfide Is More Cytotoxic to Prostate Cancer Cells PC-3 than to Noncancerous Epithelial Cell Line PNT1A: A Possible Role of p66Shc signaling Axis. Nutr. Cancer 65(5):711-717.
Boyle S.P., Dobson V.L., Duthie S.J., Kyle J.A. and Collins A.R. 2000. Absorption and DNA protective effects of flavonoid glycosides from an onion meal. Eur. J. Nutr. 39:213-23.
Byun S., Park J., Lee E., Lim S., Yu J.G., Lee S.J., Chen H,. Dong Z., Lee K.W. and Lee H.J. 2013. Src kinase is a direct target of apigenin against UVB-induced skin inflammation. Carcinogenesis. 34(2):397-405.
Caridi D., Trenerry V.C., Rochfort S., Duong S. and Laugher D.J.R. 2007. Profiling and quantifying quercetin glucosides in onion (Allium cepa L.) varieties using capillary zone electrophoresis and high performance liquid chromatography. Food Chem. 105: 691-699.
Chan S.T., Yang N.-C., Huang C.-S., Liao J.-W. and Yeh S.-L. 2013. Quercetin Enhances the Antitumor Activity of Trichostatin A through Upregulation of p53 Protein Expression In Vitro and In Vivo. PLoS ONE 8(1): e54255.
Chang H.P., Huang S.Y. and Chen Y.H. 2005. Modulation of Cytokine Secretion by Garlic Oil Derivatives Is Associated with Suppressed Nitric Oxide Production in Stimulated Macrophages. J Agric. Food Chem. 53(7):2530-2534.
Chang W.S., Lee Y.J., Lu F.J. and Chiang H.C. 1993. Inhibitory effects of flavonoids on xanthine oxidase. Anticancer Res. 13:2165-70.
Chang Y.C., Tsai M.H., Sheu W.H., Hseih S.C. and Chiang A.N. 2013. The therapeutic potential and mechanisms of action of quercetin in relation to lipopolysaccharide-induced sepsis in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One 8:e80744.
Chen W.C., Hsu S.S., Chou C.T., Kuo C.C., Huang J.K., Fang Y.C., Chang H.T., Tsai J.Y., Liao W.C., Wang B.W., Shieh P., Kuo D.H. and Jan C.R. 2011. Effect of diallyl disulfide on Ca2+ movement and viability in PC3 human prostate cancer cells. Toxicol In Vitro 25(3):636-643.
Chen Y., Xiao P., Ou-Yang D.S., Fan L., Guo D., Wang Y.N., Han Y., Tu J.H., Zhou G., Huang Y.F. and Zhou H.H. 2009. Simultaneous action of the flavonoid quercetin on cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A2, CYP2A6, N-acetyltransferase and xanthine oxidase activity in healthy volunteers. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 36(8):828-833.
Chen Y-K., Lee C-H., W, I-C., Liu J-S., Wu D-C., Lee J-M., Goan Y-G., Chou S-H., Huang C-T., Lee C-Y., Hung H-C., Yang J-F. and Wu M-T. 2009. Food intake and the occurrence of squamous cell carcinoma in different sections of the esophagus in Taiwanese men. Nutrition 25:753-761.
Choi J.S., Piao Y.J. and Kang K.W. 2011. Effects of quercetin on the bioavailability of doxorubicin in rats: role of CYP3A4 and P-gp inhibition by quercetin. Arch. Pharm. Res. 34(4):607-613.
Chou C.C., Yang J.S., Lu H.F., Wan S., Lo C., Wu C.C., Lin J.P., Tang N.Y., Chung J.G., Chou M.J., Teng Y.H. and Chen D.R. 2010. Quercetin-mediated cell cycle arrest and apoptosis involving activation of a caspase cascade through the mitochondrial pathway in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells. Arch. Pharm. Res. 8:1811-1191.
Colina-Coca C., González-Peña D., de Ancos B. and Sánchez-Moreno C. 2017. Dietary onion ameliorates antioxidant defence, inflammatory response, and cardiovascular risk biomarkers in hypercholesterolemic Wistar rats. J. Funct. Foods. 36:300-309.
Corzo-Martínez M., Corzo N. and Villamiel M. 2007. Biological properties of onions and garlic. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 18:609-625.
Dankert J., Tromp T.F., de Vries H. and Klasen H.J. 1979. Antimicrobial activity of crude juices of Allium ascalonicum, Allium cepaand Allium sativum. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Orig. A. 245:229-39.
Davis L., Shen J. and Royer R. 1994. In Vitro Synergism of Concentrated Allium sativum Extract and Amphotericin B against Cryptococcus neoformans. Planta Med. 60:546-549.
Devi K.P., Kiruthiga P.V. and Pandian S.K. 2009. Emerging Role of Flavonoids in Inhibition of NF-kB-Mediated Signaling Pathway: A Review. Int. J. Biomed. Pharm. Sci. 3(1):31-45.
Dirsch V.M. and Vollmar A.M. 2001. Ajoene, a natural product with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-like properties? Biochem. Pharmacol. 61:587-93.
Duo J., Ying G.G., Wang G.W. and Zhang L. 2012. Quercetin inhibits human breast cancer cell proliferation and induces apoptosis via Bcl-2 and Bax regulation. Mol. Med. Rep. 5:1453-1456.
Elberry A.A., Mufti S., Al-Maghrabi J., Abdel Sattar E., Ghareib S.A., Mosli H.A. and Gabr S.A. 2014. Immunomodulatory effect of red onion (Allium cepa Linn) scale extract on experimentally induced atypical prostatic hyperplasia in Wistar rats. Mediators Inflamm. 2014:640746.
Elnima E.I., Ahmed S.A., Mekkawi A.G. and Mossa J.S. 1983. The antimicrobial activity of garlic and onion extracts. Pharmazie 38:747-8. Ferreres F., Gil M.I. and Tomás-Barberán F.A. 1996. Anthocyanins and flavonoids from shredded red onion and changes during storage in perforated films. Food Res. Int. 29:389-395.
Filomeni G., Aquilano K., Rotilio G. and Ciriolo M.R. 2003. Reactive oxygen species-dependent c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase/c-Jun signaling cascade mediates neuroblastoma cell death induced by diallyl disulfide. Cancer Res. 63:5940-5949.
Fleischauer A.T. and Arab L. 2001. Garlic and cancer: a critical review of the epidemiologic literature. J. Nutr. 131:1032S–1040S.
Fleischauer A.T., Poole C. and Arab L. 2000. Garlic consumption and cancer prevention: meta-analyses of colorectal and stomach cancers. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72:1047-1052.
Fossen T., Andersen Ø.M., Øvstedal D.O., Pedersen A.T. and Raknes Å. 1996. Characteristic Anthocyanin Pattern from Onions and other Allium spp. J. Food Sci. 61:703-706.
Fredotovic Ž., Šprung M., Soldo B., Ljubenkov I., Budic-Leto I., Bilušic T., Cikeš-Culic V. and Puizina J. 2017. Chemical Composition and Biological Activity of Allium cepa L. and Allium × cornutum (Clementi ex Visiani 1842) Methanolic Extracts. Molecules 22(3):448.
Galeone C., Pelucchi C., Levi F., Negri E., Franceschi S., Talamini R., Giacosa A. and La Vecchia C. 2006. Onion and garlic use and human cancer. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 84:1027-32.
Gao C.M., Takezaki T., Ding J.H., Li M.S. and Tajima K. 1999. Protective effect of allium vegetables against both esophageal and stomach cancer: a simultaneous case-referent study of a high-epidemic area in Jiangsu Province, China. Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 90:614-21.
Geng Z., Rong Y. and Lau B.H. 1997. S-allyl cysteine inhibits activation of nuclear factor kappa B in human T cells. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 23:345-50.
Gennaro L., Leonardi C., Esposito F., Salucci M., Maiani G., Quaglia G. and Fogliano V. 2002. Flavonoid and carbohydrate contents in Tropea red onions: effects of homelike peeling and storage. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50:1904-10.
González C.A., Pera G., Agudo A., Bueno-de-Mesquita H.B., Ceroti M., Boeing H., Schulz M., Del Giudice G., Plebani M., Carneiro F., Berrino F., Sacerdote C., Tumino R., Panico S., Berglund G., Simán H., Hallmans G., Stenling R., Martinez C., Dorronsoro M., Barricarte A., Navarro C., Quiros J.R., Allen N., Key T.J., Bingham S., Day N.E., Linseisen J., Nagel G., Overvad K., Jensen M.K., Olsen A., Tjønneland A., Büchner F.L., Peeters P.H., Numans M.E., Clavel-Chapelon F., Boutron-Ruault M.-C., Roukos D., Trichopoulou A., Psaltopoulou T., Lund E., Casagrande C., Slimani N., Jenab M. and Riboli E. 2006. Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of stomach and oesophagus adenocarcinoma in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC–EURGAST). Int. J. Cancer 118:2559-2566.
Gorinstein S., Leontowicz H., Leontowicz M., Namiesnik J., Najman K., Drzewiecki J., Cvikrová M., Martincová O., Katrich E. and Trakhtenberg S. 2008. Comparison of the Main Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activities in Garlic and White and Red Onions after Treatment Protocols. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56:4418-4426.
Griffiths G., Trueman L., Crowther T., Thomas B. and Smith B. 2002. Onions?A global benefit to health. Phyther. Res.16:603-615.
Guercio V., Galeone C. Turati F. and La Vecchia C. 2014. Gastric cancer and allium vegetable intake: a critical review of the experimental and epidemiologic evidence. Nutr Cancer 66(5):757-773.
Halliwell B., Rafter J. and Jenner A. 2005. Health promotion by flavonoids, tocopherols, tocotrienols, and other phenols: direct or indirect effects? Antioxidant or not? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81:268S-276S.
Han J., Lawson L., Han G. and Han P. 1995. A spectrophotometric method for quantitative determination of allicin and total garlic thiosulfinates. Anal. Biochem. 225:157-160.
Han X., Shen T. and Lou H. 2007. Dietary Polyphenols and Their Biological Significance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 8(9):950-988.
Haza A.I., Coto A.L. and Morales P. 2011. Comparison of the ability of myricetin and quercetin to modulate the oxidative DNA damage induced by heterocyclic amines. Food Nutr. Sci. 2:356-365.
Herman-Antosiewicz A. and Singh S.V. 2004. Signal transduction pathways leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis induction in cancer cells by Allium vegetable-derived organosulfur compounds: a review. Mutat. Res. Mol. Mech. Mutagen. 555:121-131.
Hong Y.-S., Ham Y.-A., Choi J.-H. and Kim J. 2000. Effects of allyl sulfur compounds and garlic extract on the expression of Bcl-2, Bax and p53 in non small cell lung cancer cell lines. Exp. Mol. Med. 32:127-134.
Hsing A.W., Chokkalingam A.P., Gao Y.T., Madigan M.P., Deng J., Gridley G. and Fraumeni J.F. 2002. Allium vegetables and risk of prostate cancer: a population-based study. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 94:1648-1651.
Hu J., La Vecchia C., Negri E., Chatenoud L., Bosetti C., Jia X., Liu R., Huang G., Bi D. and Wang C. 1999. Diet and brain cancer in adults: a case-control study in northeast. China. Int. J. Cancer 81:20–23.
Hughes B.G. and Lawson L.D. 1991. Antimicrobial effects of Allium sativum L. (garlic), Allium ampeloprasum L. (elephant garlic), and Allium cepa L. (onion), garlic compounds and commercial garlic supplement products. Phyther. Res. 5:154-158.
Iciek M., Kwiecien I., Chwatko G., Sokolowska-Jezewicz M., Kowalczyk-Pachel D. and Rokita H. 2012. The effects of garlic-derived sulfur compounds on cell proliferation, caspase 3 activity, thiol levels and anaerobic sulfur metabolism in human hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells. Cell Biochem. Funct. 30:198-204.
Ide N. and Lau B.H. 2001. Garlic compounds minimize intracellular oxidative stress and inhibit nuclear factor-kappa b activation. J. Nutr. 131:1020S-1026S.
Jain I., Jain P., Bisht D., Sharma A., Srivastava B. and Gupta N. 2015. Comparative Evaluation of Antibacterial Efficacy of Six Indian Plant Extracts against Streptococcus Mutans. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 9(2): ZC50-3.
Jaiswal N. and Rizvi S.I. 2014. Onion extract (Allium cepa L.), quercetin and catechin up-regulate paraoxonase 1 activity with concomitant protection against low-density lipoprotein oxidation in male Wistar rats subjected to oxidative stress. J. Sci. Food Agric. 94(13):2752-2757.
Johnson M., Olaleye O.N. and Kolawole O.S. 2016. Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties of Aqueous Garlic (Allium sativum) Extract against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Br. Microbiol. Res. J. 14(1): 1-11.
Kaplan H. and Hutkins R.W. 2000. Fermentation of fructooligosaccharides by lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:2682-2684.
Kaur G., Gupta V., Chistopher A.F. and Bansal P. 2016. Antioxidant potential of commonly used vegetable -onion (Allium cepa L.) J. Altern. Complement. Med. Res.1(1):1-5.
Kelkel M., Cerella C., Mack F., Schneider T., Jacob C., Schumacher M., Dicato M., Diederich M. 2012. ROS-independent JNK activation and multisite phosphorylation of Bcl-2 link diallyl tetrasulfide-induced mitotic arrest to apoptosis. Carcinogenesis 33(11):2162-2171.
Keusgen M. 2011. Volatile Compounds of the Genus Allium L. (Onions). In "Volatile Sulfur Compounds in Food". Qian M. et al. (Ed.), Chapter 9, ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, USA.
Khanum F., Anilakumar K. and Viswanathan K. 2004. Anticarcinogenic Properties of Garlic: A Review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 44:479-488.
Khazaei S., Ramachandran V., Abdul Hamid R., Mohd Esa N., Etemad A., Moradipoor S and Ismail P. 2017. Flower extract of Allium atroviolaceum triggered apoptosis, activated caspase-3 and down-regulated antiapoptotic Bcl-2 gene in HeLa cancer cell line. Biomed. Pharmacother. 89:1216-1226.
Kim J.-H.1997. Anti-bacterial action of onion (Allium cepa L.) extracts against oral pathogenic bacteria. J. Nihon Univ. Sch. Dent. 39:136-141.
Kim H., Moon J.Y., Ahn K.S. and Cho S.K. 2013. Quercetin induces mitochondrial mediated apoptosis and protective autophagy in human glioblastoma U373MG cells. Oxidative Med. Cell Longev. 2013:1-10.
Kim K.M., Chun S.B., Koo M.S., Choi W.J., Kim T.W., Kwon Y.G., Chung H.T., Billiar T.R. and Kim Y.M. 2001. Differential regulation of NO availability from macrophages and endothelial cells by the garlic component S-allyl cysteine. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 30:747-756.
Kim M.-Y., Kim Y.-C. and Chung S.-K. 2005. Identification and in vitro biological activities of flavonols in garlic leaf and shoot: inhibition of soybean lipoxygenase and hyaluronidase activities and scavenging of free radicals. J.Sci. Food Agric. 85:633–640.
Kim S, Kima D.B, Jina W., Parka J., Yoona W., Leea Y., Kima S., Leea S., Kima S., Leeb O.-H., Shina D. and Yooa M. 2018. Comparative studies of bioactive organosulphur compounds and antioxidant activities in garlic (Allium sativum L.), elephant garlic (Allium ampeloprasum L.) and onion (Allium cepa L.). Nat. Prod. Res. 32(10): 1193-1197.
Kim S.R., Jung Y.R., An H.J., Kim D.H., Jang E.J., et al. 2013. Anti-Wrinkle and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Active Garlic Components and the Inhibition of MMPs via NF-kB Signaling. PLoS ONE 8(9):e73877.
Knowles L.M. and Milner J.A. 2000. Diallyl disulfide inhibits p34(cdc2) kinase activity through changes in complex formation and phosphorylation. Carcinogenesis 21:1129-1134.
Koca I., Tekguler B. and Odabas H.I. 2016. Comparison of antioxidant properties of some onion and garlic cultivars grown in Turekey. Acta. Hortic. 1143:207-214.
Kumar S. and Pandey A. 2013. Chemistry and biological activities of flavonoids: an overview. Sci. World J. 2013:1-16.
Kumari M. and Ranjan N. 2014. In vitro antioxidant activity of extract of bulb of allium sativum linn. using dpph and frap assays with evaluation of total phenolic content. Int. J. Bioassays. 3(2):1752-1755.
Kwon K.-B., Yoo S.-J., Ryu D.-G., Yang J.-Y., Rho H.-W., Kim J.-S., Park J.-W., Kim H.-R. and Park B.-H. 2002. Induction of apoptosis by diallyl disulfide through activation of caspase-3 in human leukemia HL-60 cells. Biochem. Pharmacol. 63:41-47.
Lang A., Lahav M., Sakhnini E., Barshack I., Fidder H.H., Avidan B., Bardan E., Hershkoviz R., Bar-Meir S. and Chowers Y. 2004. Allicin inhibits spontaneous and TNF-? induced secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines from intestinal epithelial cells. Clin. Nutr. 23:1199–1208.
Lanzotti V., Scala F. and Bonanomi G. 2014. Compounds from Allium species with cytotoxic and antimicrobial activity. Phytochem. Rev.13(4):769-791.
Lanzotti V. 2006. The analysis of onion and garlic. J. Chromatogr. A 1112:3-22.
Lau B., Tadi P. and Tosk, J.1990. Allium sativum (Garlic) and cancer prevention. Nutr. Res. 10:937-948.
Lawson L., Wood S. and Hughes B. 1991. HPLC Analysis of Allicin and Other Thiosulfinates in Garlic Clove Homogenates. Planta Med. 57:263–270.
Lawson L.D. 1998. Garlic: A Review of Its Medicinal Effects and Indicated Active Compounds. Ch. 14. In "Phytomedicines of Europe: Chemistry and Biological Activity". Series 691. pp. 176–209. Washington DC: ACS.
Lee W.J., Hisao M., Chang J.L., Yang S.F., Tseng T.H., Cheng C.W., Chow J.M., Lin K.H., Lin Y.W. Liu C.C., Lee L.M. and Chien M.H. 2015. Quercetin induces mitochondrial-derived apoptosis via reactive oxygen species-mediated ERK activation in HL-60 leukemia cells and xenograft. Arch. Toxicol. 89(7):1103-1117.
Lee Y.J., Lee D.M. and Lee S.H. 2015. Nrf2 expression and apoptosis in quercetin-treated malignant mesothelioma cells. Mol. Cell 38:416-425.
Lee Y.K., Hwang J.T., Kwon D.Y., Surh Y.J. and Park O.J. 2010. Induction of apoptosis by quercetin is mediated through AMPKalpha1/ASK1/p38 pathway. Cancer Lett. 292:228-236.
Li S., Ma C., Gong G., Liu Z., Chang C. and Xu Z. 2016. The impact of onion juice on milk fermentation by Lactobacillus acidophilus. LWT -Food Sci. Technol. 65:543-548.
Li W., Liu M., Xu Y.F., Feng Y., Che J.P., Wang G.C. nad Zheng J.H. 2014. Combination of quercetin and hyperoside has anticancer effects on renal cancer cells through inhibition of oncogenic microRNA-27a. Oncol. Rep. 31:117-124.
Li W.-R., Shi Q.-S-, Dai H.-Q., Liang Q., Xie X.-B., Huang X.-M., Zhao G.-Z. and Zhang L.-X. 2016. Antifungal activity, kinetics and molecular mechanism of action of garlic oil against Candida albicans. Sci. Rep. 6:22805.
Makita H., Tanaka T., Fujitsuka H., Tatematsu N., Satoh K., Hara A. and Mori H. 1996. Chemoprevention of 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide-induced rat oral carcinogenesis by the dietary flavonoids chalcone, 2-hydroxychalcone, and quercetin. Cancer Res. 56:4904-4909.
Matsuura H. 1997. Phytochemistry of Garlic Horticultural and Processing Procedures. Ch. 7. In " Nutraceuticals: Designer Foods III: Garlic, Soy and Licorice". Lachance P.A. Ph.D (Ed.), pp. 55-69. Food & Nutrition Press, Inc., Trumbull, Connecticut, USA.
Milner J.A. 2001. Mechanisms by which garlic and allyl sulfur compounds suppress carcinogen bioactivation. Garlic and carcinogenesis. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 492:69-81.
Min Kim S., Kubota K. and Kobayashi A. 1997. Antioxidative Activity of Sulfur-containing Flavor Compounds in Garlic. Biosci. Biotech. Biochem 61:1482-1485.
Mishra P.S.M., Kol S., Arnold R. and Mishra R.M. 2016. Pathogenecity of Dental Caries; Isolation and Antimicrobial Efficacy by Herbal Plants. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 5(8): 929-935.
Morrissey J.P. and Osbourn A.E. 1999. Fungal resistance to plant antibiotics as a mechanism of pathogenesis. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 63:708-724.
Mutoh M., Takahashi M., Fukuda K., Komatsu H., Enya T., Matsushima-Hibiya Y., Mutoh H., Sugimura T. and Wakabayashi K. 2000. Suppression by flavonoids of cyclooxygenase-2 promoter-dependent transcriptional activity in colon cancer cells: structure-activity relationship. Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 91:686-691.
Nagaraj N.S., Anilakumar K.R. and Singh O.V. 2010. Diallyl disulfide causes caspase-dependent apoptosis in human cancer cells through a Bax-triggered mitochondiral pathway. J. Nutr. Biochem. 21:405-412.
Ndoye Foe1 F.M.C., Tchinang T.F.K., Nyegue A.M., Abdou J.-P, Yaya A.J.G., Tchinda A.T., Essame J.L.O. and Etoa F.-X. 2016. Chemical composition, in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of essential oils of four dietary and medicinal plants from Cameroon. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 16:117.
Niu G., Yin S., Xie S., Li Y., Nie D., Ma L., Wang X. and Wu Y. 2011. Quercetin induces apoptosis by activating caspase-3 and regulating Blc-2 and cyclooxygenase-2 pathway in human HL-60 cells. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. 43:30-37.
Nuutila A.M., Puupponen-Pimiä R., Aarni M. and Oksman-Caldentey K.-M. 2003. Comparison of antioxidant activities of onion and garlic extracts by inhibition of lipid peroxidation and radical scavenging activity. Food Chem. 81:485-493.
Nuutila AM, Puupponen-Pimiä R, Aarni M. and Oksman-Caldentey K.M. 2003. Comparison of antioxidant activities of onion and garlic extracts by inhibition of lipid peroxidation and radical scavenging activity. Food Chem. 81:485-493.
O’Gara E.A., Hill D.J. and Maslin D.J. 2000. Activities of garlic oil, garlic powder, and their diallyl constituents against Helicobacter pylori. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:2269-2273.
Ortiz M. 2015. Antimicrobial Activity of Onion and Ginger against two Food Borne Pathogens Escherichia Coli and Staphylococcus Aureus. MOJ Food process Technol. 1(4): 00021.
Osbourn A., Goss R.J.M. and Field R.A. 2011. The saponins –polar isoprenoids with important and diverse biological activities. Nat. Prod. Rep. 28(7):1261-1268.
Pan Y., Zheng Y.M. and Ho W.S. 2018. Effect of quercetin glucosides from Allium extracts on HepG2, PC-3 and HT-29 cancer cell lines. Oncol. Lett. 15:4657-4661.
Panche A.N., Diwan A.D. and Chandra S.R. 2016. Flavonoids: an overview. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 5(47):1-15.
Park J.B. 2011. Effects of typheramide and alfrutamide found in Allium species on cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases. J. Med. Food 14:226-231.
Perchellet J., Perchellet E.M. and Belman S. 1990. Inhibition of DMBA-induced mouse skin tumorigenesis by garlic oil and inhibition of two tumor-promotion stages by garlic and onion oils. Nutr. Cancer 14:183-193.
Petrovska B.B. and Cekovska S. 2010. Extracts from the history and medical properties of garlic. Pharmacogn. Rev. 4:106-110.
Pietta P.G. 2000. Flavonoids as antioxidants. J. Nat. Prod. 63:1035-1042.
Pourzand A., Tajaddini A., Pirouzpanah S., Asghari-Jafarabadi M., Samadi N., Ostadrahimi A.R., Sanaat Z. 2016. Associations between Dietary Allium Vegetables and Risk of Breast Cancer: A Hospital-Based Matched Case-Control Study. J. Breast Cancer 19(3):292-300.
Prasanna V.K. and Venkatesh Y.P. 2015. Characterization of onion lectin (Allium cepa agglutinin) as an immunomodulatory protein inducing Th1-type immune response in vitro. Int. Immunopharmacol 26:304-313.
Quintero-Fabián S., Ortuño-Sahagún D., Vázquez-Carrera M. and López-Roa R.I. 2013. Alliin, a Garlic (Allium sativum) Compound, Prevents LPS-Induced Inflammation in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes. Mediators Inflamm. 2013:381815.
Prakash D., Singh B.N. and Upadhyay G. 2007. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of phenols from onion (Allium cepa). Food Chem. 102:1389-1393.
Pyun M.-S. and Shin S. 2006. Antifungal effects of the volatile oils from Allium plants against Trichophyton species and synergism of the oils with ketoconazole. Phytomedicine 13:394-400.
Raso G.M., Meli R., Di Carlo G., Pacilio M. and Di Carlo R. 2001. Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression by flavonoids in macrophage J774A.1. Life Sci. 68:921-931.
de Lourdes Reis Giada M. 2013. Food Phenolic Compounds: Main Classes, Sources and Their Antioxidant Power. Ch. 4. In "Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases -A Role for Antioxidants". J. A. Morales-González (Ed.), pp.87-112. InTech Publisher.
Ren M.X., Deng X.H., Ai F., Yuan G.Y. and Song H.Y. 2015. Effect of quercetin on the proliferation of the human ovarian cancer cell line SKOV-3 in vitro. Exp. Ther. Med. 10:579-583.
Reuter S., Gupta S.C., Chaturvedi M.M. and Aggarwal B.B. 2010. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer: how are they linked? Free Radic. Biol. Med. 49:1603-16.
Rodrigues A.S., Almeida D.P.F., Simal-Gándara J. and Pérez-Gregorio M.R. 2017. Onions: A Source of Flavonoids, Flavonoids José Justino, IntechOpen, DOI: doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69896.
Rose P., Whiteman M., Moore P.K. and Zhu Y.Z. 2005. Bioactive S-alk(en) yl cysteine sulfoxide metabolites in the genus Allium: the chemistry of potential therapeutic agents. Nat. Prod. Rep. 22(3):351-368.
Russo M., Spagnuolo C., Bilotto S., Tedesco I., Maiani G and Russo G.L. 2014. Inhibition of protein kinase CK2 by quercetin enhances CD95-mediated apoptosis in human thymus-derived T cell line. Food Res. Int. 63:244-251.
Sakamoto K., Lavvson L.D. and Milner J.A. 1997. Allyl sulfides from garlic suppress the in vitro proliferation of human a549 lung tumor cells. Nutr. Cancer 29:152-156.
Sankaranarayanan R., Varghese C., Duffy S.W., Padmakumary G., Day N.E. and Nair M.K. 1994. A case-control study of diet and lung cancer in Kerala, south India. Int. J. cancer 58:644-649.
Santas J., Almajano M.P. and Carbó R. 2010. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of crude onion (Allium cepa L.) extracts. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 45:403-409.
Seki T., Tsuji K., Hayato Y., Moritomo T. and Ariga T. 2000. Garlic and onion oils inhibit proliferation and induce differentiation of HL-60 cells. Cancer Lett. 160:29-35.
Semmler F.W. 1892. Überdas ätherische Ol des Knoblauchs (Allium sativum). Arch. Pharm. (Weinheim). 230:434-443.
Shams-Ghahfarokhi M., Shokoohamiri M.-R., Amirrajab N., Moghadasi B., Ghajari A., Zeini F., Sadeghi G. and Razzaghi-Abyaneh M. 2006. In vitro antifungal activities of Allium cepa, Allium sativum and ketoconazole against some pathogenic yeasts and dermatophytes. Fitoterapia 77:321-323.
Shin I.S., Hong J., Jeon C.M., Shin N.R., Kwon O.K., Kim H.S., Kim J.C., Oh S.R., Ahn K.S. 2013. Diallyl-disulfide, an organosulfur compound of garlic, attenuates airway inflammation via activation of the Nrf-2/HO-1 pathway and NF-kappaB suppression. Food Chem. Toxicol. 62:506-513.
Siegers C.-P., Röbke A. and Pentz R. 1999a. Effects of garlic preparations on superoxide production by phorbol ester activated granulocytes. Phytomedicine 6:13-16.
Siegers C.-P., Steffen B., Röbke A. and Pentz R. 1999b. The effects of garlic preparations against human tumor cell proliferation. Phytomedicine 6:7-11.
Slimestad R., Fossen T. and Vågen I.M. 2007. Onions: A Source of Unique Dietary Flavonoids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55:10067-10080.
Sobolewska D., Michalska K., Podolak I. and Grabowska K. 2016. Steroidal saponins from the genus Allium. Phytochem. Rev. 15:1-35.
Sparg S.G., Light M.E. and van Staden J. 2004. Biological activities and distribution of plant saponins. J. Ethnopharmacol. 94:219-243.
Stoll A. and Seebeck E. 1948. Über Alliin, die genuine Muttersubstanz des Knoblauchöls. 1. Mitteilung über Allium-Substanzen. Helv. Chim. Acta 31:189-210.
Suleiman E. and Abdallah W. 2014. In vitro Activity of Garlic (Allium sativum) on Some Pathogenic Fungi. European J. Med. Plants 4(10):1240-1250.
Sundaram S.G. and Milner J.A. 1996. Diallyl disulfide induces apoptosis of human colon tumor cells. Carcinogenesis 17:669-673.
Syed D.N., Adhami V.M., Khan M.I. and Mukhtar H. 2013. Inhibition of Akt/mTOR signaling by the dietary flavonoid fisetin. Anticancer Agents Med. Chem. 13:995-1001.
Štajner D., Igic R., Popovic B.M. and Malencic D. 2008. Comparative study of antioxidant properties of wild growing and cultivated Allium species. Phyther. Res. 22:113-117.
Talalay P. and Fahey J.W. 2001. Phytochemicals from cruciferous plants protect against cancer by modulating carcinogen metabolism. J. Nutr. 131:3027S–3033S.
Tanaka T., Makita H., Kawabata K., Mori H., Kakumoto M., Satoh K., Hara A., Sumida T., Tanaka T. and Ogawa H. 1997a. Chemoprevention of azoxymethane-induced rat colon carcinogenesis by the naturally occurring flavonoids, diosmin and hesperidin. Carcinogenesis 18:957-965.
Tanaka T., Makita H., Ohnishi M., Mori H., Satoh K., Hara A., Sumida T., Fukutani K., Tanaka T. and Ogawa H. 1997b. Chemoprevention of 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide-induced oral carcinogenesis in rats by flavonoids diosmin and hesperidin, each alone and in combination. Cancer Res. 57:246-252.
Thomas A., Thakur S. and Habib R. 2017. Comparison of Antimicrobial Efficacy of Green Tea, Garlic with Lime, and Sodium Fluoride Mouth Rinses against Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillispecies, and Candida albicans in Children: A Randomized Double-blind Controlled Clinical Trial. Int. J. Clin. Pediatr. Dent. 10(3):234-239.
Thomson M., Al-Qattan K.K., Bordia T. and Ali M. 2006. Including garlic in the diet may help lower blood glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides. J. Nutr. 136:800S–802S.
Thomson M. and Ali M. 2003. Garlic [Allium sativum]: a review of its potential use as an anti-cancer agent. Curr. Cancer Drug Targets 3:67–81.
Tocmo R., Liang D., Lin Y. and Huang D. 2015. Chemical and Biochemical Mechanisms Underlying the Cardioprotective Roles of Dietary Organopolysulfides. Front. Nutr. 2:1.
Tsuboki J., Fujiwara Y., Horlad H., Shiraishi D., Nohara T., Tayama S., Motohara T., Saito Y., Ikeda T., Takaishi K., Tashiro H., Yonemoto Y., Katabuchi H., Takeya M. and Komohara Y. 2016. Onionin A inhibits ovarian cancer progression by suppressing cancer cell proliferation and the protumour function of macrophages. Sci. Rep. 6:29588.
Turati F., Pelucchi C., Guercio V., La Vecchia C. and Galeone C. 2015. Allium vegetable intake and gastric cancer: a case-control study and meta-analysis. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 59(1):171-179.
Turati F., Pelucchi C., Guercio V., La Vecchia C. and Galeone C. 2014. Colorectal cancer and adenomatous polyps in relation to allium vegetables intake: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 58(9):1907-1914.
Venâncio P.C., Figueroba S.R., Nani B.D., Ferreira L.E.N., Muniz B.V., de Sá Del Fiol F., Sartoratto A., Rosa E.A.R., Groppo F.C. 2017. Antimicrobial Activity of Two Garlic Species (Allium Sativum and A. Tuberosum) Against Staphylococci Infection. In Vivo Study in Rats. Adv. Pharm. Bull. 7(1):151-121.
Vidya Priyadarsini R., Senthil Murugan R., Maitreyi S., Ramalingam K., Karunagaran D., Nagini S. 2010. The flavonoid quercetin induces cell cycle arrest and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells through p53 induction and NF-?B inhibition. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 15:649(1-3):84-91.
Wadsworth T.L. and Koop D.R., 1999. Effects of the wine polyphenolics quercetin and resveratrol on pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Biochem. Pharmacol. 57:941-949.
Wallock-Richards D., Doherty C.J, Doherty L., Clarke D.J., Place M., Govan J.R.W., Campopiano D.J. 2014. Garlic Revisited: Antimicrobial Activity of Allicin-Containing Garlic Extracts against Burkholderia cepacia Complex. PLoS One. 9(12): e112726.
Wang Y., Tian W.-X. and Ma X.-F. 2012. Inhibitory effects of onion (Allium cepa L.) extract on proliferation of cancer cells and adipocytes via inhibiting fatty acid synthase. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 13:5573-5579.
Wargovich M.J. 2006. Diallylsulfide and allylmethylsulfide are uniquely effective among organosulfur compounds in inhibiting CYP2E1 protein in animal models. J. Nutr. 136:832S–834S.
Wertheim T. 1844. Untersuchung des Knoblauchöls. Ann. der Chemie und Pharm. 51:289–315.
WHO 1999. Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants -World Health Organization. Geneva.
Witte J.S., Longnecker M.P., Bird C.L., Lee E.R., Frankl H.D. and Haile R.W. 1996. Relation of vegetable, fruit, and grain consumption to colorectal adenomatous polyps. Am. J. Epidemiol. 144:1015-1125.
Yamada Y. and Azuma K. 1977. Evaluation of the in vitro antifungal activity of allicin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 11:743-749.
Yang C.S., Chhabra S.K., Hong J.Y. and Smith T.J. 2001b. Mechanisms of inhibition of chemical toxicity and carcinogenesis by diallyl sulfide (DAS) and related compounds from garlic. J. Nutr. 131:1041S-1045S.
Yang C.S., Chhabra S.K., Hong J.Y. and Smith, T.J. 2001a. Mechanisms of inhibition of chemical toxicity and carcinogenesis by diallyl sulfide (DAS) and related compounds from garlic. J. Nutr. 131:1041S-1045S.
Yang J.-S., Chen G.-W., Hsia T.-C., Ho H.-C., Ho C.-C., Lin M.-W., Lin S.-S., Yeh R.-D., Ip S.-W., Lu H.-F. and Chung J.-G. 2009. Diallyl disulfide induces apoptosis in human colon cancer cell line (COLO 205) through the induction of reactive oxygen species, endoplasmic reticulum stress, caspases casade and mitochondrial-dependent pathways. Food Chem. Toxicol. 47:171-179.
Yi L., Ji X.X., Lin M., Tan H., Tang Y., Wen L., Ma Y.H. and Su Q. 2010a. Diallyl disulfide induces apoptosis in human leukemia HL-60 cells through activation of JNK mediated by reactive oxygen. Pharmazie. 65(9):693-698.
Yi L., Ji X.X., Tan H., Lin M., Tang Y., Wen L., Ma Y.H., Su Q. 2010b. Role of Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 2 (Rac2), NADPH oxidase and reactive oxygen species in diallyl disulphide-induced apoptosis of human leukaemia HL-60 cells. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 7(12):1147-1153.
Yin M.C., Tsao S.M. 1999. Inhibitory effect of seven Alliumplants upon three Aspergillus species. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 49:49-56.
Yin M-C. and Cheng W. 1998. Antioxidant Activity of Several Allium Members. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46(10):4097-4101.
Yoshida H., Katsuzaki H., Ohta R., Ishikawa K., Fukuda H., Fujino T. and Suzuki A. 1999a. Antimicrobial Activity of the Thiosulfinates Isolated from Oil-Macerated Garlic Extract. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 63:591-594.
Yoshida H., Katsuzaki H., Ohta R., Ishikawa K., Fukuda H., Fujino T. and Suzuki A., 1999b. An Organosulfur Compound Isolated from Oil-Macerated Garlic Extract, and Its Antimicrobial Effect. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 63:588-590.
You W.C., Blot W.J., Chang Y.S., Ershow A., Yang Z.T., An Q., Henderson B.E., Fraumeni J.F. and Wang T.G. 1989. Allium vegetables and reduced risk of stomach cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 81:162-164.
Zhou Y., Zhuang W., Hu W., Liu G., Wu T. and Wu X. 2011. Consumption of Large Amounts of Allium Vegetables Reduces Risk for Gastric Cancer in a Meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 141:80-89.
Zhu B., Zou L., Qi L., Zhong R. and Miao X. 2014. Allium Vegetables and Garlic Supplements Do Not Reduce Risk of Colorectal Cancer, Based on Meta-analysis of Prospective Studies. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 12:1991-2001.
Adão C.R., da Silva B.P. and Parente J.P. 2011. A new steroidal saponin with anti-inflammatory and antiulcerogenic properties from the bulbs of Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum. Fitoterapia 82:1175-1180.
Ahiabor C., Gordon A., Ayittey K. and Agyare R. 2016. In vitro assessment of antibacterial activity of crude extracts of onion (Allium cepa L.) and shallot (Allium aescalonicum L.) on isolates of Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), and Salmonella typhi (ATCC 19430). Int. J. Appl. Res. 2(5):1029-1032.
Albishia T., John J.A.,. Al-Khalifa A.S., Shahidi F. 2013. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and DNA scission inhibitory activities of phenolic compounds in selected onion and potato varieties. J. Funct. Foods 5(2):930-939.
Altundal E.M., KasacJ T., YJlmaz A.M., Betül Karademir B., Koçtürk S., Taga Y. and YalçJn A.S. 2016. Quercetin-Induced Cell Death in Human Papillary Thyroid Cancer (B-CPAP) Cells. J. Thyroid Res. Article ID 9843675.
Ali M. 1995. Mechanism by which garlic (Allium sativum) inhibits cyclooxygenase activity. Effect of raw versus boiled garlic extract on the synthesis of prostanoids. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 53:397-400.
Ali M., Thomson M. and Afzal M. 2000. Garlic and onions: their effect on eicosanoid metabolism and its clinical relevance. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fat. Acids 62:55-73.
Ankri S. and Mirelman D. 1999. Antimicrobial properties of allicin from garlic. Microbes Infect. 1:125-9.
Antony M.L. and Singh S.V. 2011. Molecular mechanisms and targets of cancer chemoprevention by garlic-derived bioactive compound diallyl trisulfide. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 49:805-816.
Aquilano K., Vigilanza P., Filomeni G., Rotilio G. and Ciriolo M.R. 2010. Tau dephosphorylation and microfilaments disruption are upstream events of the anti-proliferative effects of DADS in SH-SY5Y cells. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 14(3):564-577.
Ashraf R., Khan R.A. and Ashraf I. 2011. Garlic (Allium sativum) supplementation with standard antidiabetic agent provides better diabetic control in type 2 diabetes patients. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. 24:565-570.
Atashpour S., Fouladdel S. and Movahhed T.K. 2015. Quercetin induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in CD133(+) cancer stem cells of human colorectal HT29 cancer cell line and enhances anticancer effects of doxorubicin. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 18(7):635-643.
Augusti K. 1990. Therapeutic and medicinal values of onions and garlic. In "Onions and Allied Crops". H.D. Rabinowitch and J.L. Brewster (Ed.), pp. 93-108. Vol: III: Biochemistry Food Science Minor Crops. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
Bakht J., Khan S. and Shafi M. 2013. Antimicrobial potential of fresh Allium cepa against gram positive and gram negative bacteria and fungi. Pak.J. Bot 45:1-6.
Bakri I.M. and Douglas C.W.I. 2005. Inhibitory effect of garlic extract on oral bacteria. Arch. Oral Biol. 50:645-651.
Belman S. and Solomon J., Segal A., Block E., Barany G. 1989. Inhibition of soybean lipoxygenase and mouse skin tumor promotion by onion and garlic components. J. Biochem. Toxicol. 4:151-160.
Benekeblia N. 2004. Antimicrobial activity of essential oil extracts of various onions (Allium cepa) and garlic (Allium sativum). LWT -Food Sci. Technol. 37:263-268.
Bianchini F. and Vainio H. 2001. Allium vegetables and organosulfur compounds: do they help prevent cancer? Environ. Health Perspect. 109:893-902.
Block G., Patterson B. and Subar A. 1992. Fruit, vegetables, and cancer prevention: A review of the epidemiological evidence. Nutr. Cancer 18:1-29.
Boivin D., Lamy S., Lord-Dufour S., Jackson J., Beaulieu E., Côté M., Moghrabi A., Barrette S., Gingras D. and Béliveau R. 2009. Antiproliferative and antioxidant activities of common vegetables: A comparative study. Food Chem. 112:374-380.
Borkowska A., Knap N. and Antosiewicz J. 2013. Diallyl Trisulfide Is More Cytotoxic to Prostate Cancer Cells PC-3 than to Noncancerous Epithelial Cell Line PNT1A: A Possible Role of p66Shc signaling Axis. Nutr. Cancer 65(5):711-717.
Boyle S.P., Dobson V.L., Duthie S.J., Kyle J.A. and Collins A.R. 2000. Absorption and DNA protective effects of flavonoid glycosides from an onion meal. Eur. J. Nutr. 39:213-23.
Byun S., Park J., Lee E., Lim S., Yu J.G., Lee S.J., Chen H,. Dong Z., Lee K.W. and Lee H.J. 2013. Src kinase is a direct target of apigenin against UVB-induced skin inflammation. Carcinogenesis. 34(2):397-405.
Caridi D., Trenerry V.C., Rochfort S., Duong S. and Laugher D.J.R. 2007. Profiling and quantifying quercetin glucosides in onion (Allium cepa L.) varieties using capillary zone electrophoresis and high performance liquid chromatography. Food Chem. 105: 691-699.
Chan S.T., Yang N.-C., Huang C.-S., Liao J.-W. and Yeh S.-L. 2013. Quercetin Enhances the Antitumor Activity of Trichostatin A through Upregulation of p53 Protein Expression In Vitro and In Vivo. PLoS ONE 8(1): e54255.
Chang H.P., Huang S.Y. and Chen Y.H. 2005. Modulation of Cytokine Secretion by Garlic Oil Derivatives Is Associated with Suppressed Nitric Oxide Production in Stimulated Macrophages. J Agric. Food Chem. 53(7):2530-2534.
Chang W.S., Lee Y.J., Lu F.J. and Chiang H.C. 1993. Inhibitory effects of flavonoids on xanthine oxidase. Anticancer Res. 13:2165-70.
Chang Y.C., Tsai M.H., Sheu W.H., Hseih S.C. and Chiang A.N. 2013. The therapeutic potential and mechanisms of action of quercetin in relation to lipopolysaccharide-induced sepsis in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One 8:e80744.
Chen W.C., Hsu S.S., Chou C.T., Kuo C.C., Huang J.K., Fang Y.C., Chang H.T., Tsai J.Y., Liao W.C., Wang B.W., Shieh P., Kuo D.H. and Jan C.R. 2011. Effect of diallyl disulfide on Ca2+ movement and viability in PC3 human prostate cancer cells. Toxicol In Vitro 25(3):636-643.
Chen Y., Xiao P., Ou-Yang D.S., Fan L., Guo D., Wang Y.N., Han Y., Tu J.H., Zhou G., Huang Y.F. and Zhou H.H. 2009. Simultaneous action of the flavonoid quercetin on cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A2, CYP2A6, N-acetyltransferase and xanthine oxidase activity in healthy volunteers. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 36(8):828-833.
Chen Y-K., Lee C-H., W, I-C., Liu J-S., Wu D-C., Lee J-M., Goan Y-G., Chou S-H., Huang C-T., Lee C-Y., Hung H-C., Yang J-F. and Wu M-T. 2009. Food intake and the occurrence of squamous cell carcinoma in different sections of the esophagus in Taiwanese men. Nutrition 25:753-761.
Choi J.S., Piao Y.J. and Kang K.W. 2011. Effects of quercetin on the bioavailability of doxorubicin in rats: role of CYP3A4 and P-gp inhibition by quercetin. Arch. Pharm. Res. 34(4):607-613.
Chou C.C., Yang J.S., Lu H.F., Wan S., Lo C., Wu C.C., Lin J.P., Tang N.Y., Chung J.G., Chou M.J., Teng Y.H. and Chen D.R. 2010. Quercetin-mediated cell cycle arrest and apoptosis involving activation of a caspase cascade through the mitochondrial pathway in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells. Arch. Pharm. Res. 8:1811-1191.
Colina-Coca C., González-Peña D., de Ancos B. and Sánchez-Moreno C. 2017. Dietary onion ameliorates antioxidant defence, inflammatory response, and cardiovascular risk biomarkers in hypercholesterolemic Wistar rats. J. Funct. Foods. 36:300-309.
Corzo-Martínez M., Corzo N. and Villamiel M. 2007. Biological properties of onions and garlic. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 18:609-625.
Dankert J., Tromp T.F., de Vries H. and Klasen H.J. 1979. Antimicrobial activity of crude juices of Allium ascalonicum, Allium cepaand Allium sativum. Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Orig. A. 245:229-39.
Davis L., Shen J. and Royer R. 1994. In Vitro Synergism of Concentrated Allium sativum Extract and Amphotericin B against Cryptococcus neoformans. Planta Med. 60:546-549.
Devi K.P., Kiruthiga P.V. and Pandian S.K. 2009. Emerging Role of Flavonoids in Inhibition of NF-kB-Mediated Signaling Pathway: A Review. Int. J. Biomed. Pharm. Sci. 3(1):31-45.
Dirsch V.M. and Vollmar A.M. 2001. Ajoene, a natural product with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)-like properties? Biochem. Pharmacol. 61:587-93.
Duo J., Ying G.G., Wang G.W. and Zhang L. 2012. Quercetin inhibits human breast cancer cell proliferation and induces apoptosis via Bcl-2 and Bax regulation. Mol. Med. Rep. 5:1453-1456.
Elberry A.A., Mufti S., Al-Maghrabi J., Abdel Sattar E., Ghareib S.A., Mosli H.A. and Gabr S.A. 2014. Immunomodulatory effect of red onion (Allium cepa Linn) scale extract on experimentally induced atypical prostatic hyperplasia in Wistar rats. Mediators Inflamm. 2014:640746.
Elnima E.I., Ahmed S.A., Mekkawi A.G. and Mossa J.S. 1983. The antimicrobial activity of garlic and onion extracts. Pharmazie 38:747-8. Ferreres F., Gil M.I. and Tomás-Barberán F.A. 1996. Anthocyanins and flavonoids from shredded red onion and changes during storage in perforated films. Food Res. Int. 29:389-395.
Filomeni G., Aquilano K., Rotilio G. and Ciriolo M.R. 2003. Reactive oxygen species-dependent c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase/c-Jun signaling cascade mediates neuroblastoma cell death induced by diallyl disulfide. Cancer Res. 63:5940-5949.
Fleischauer A.T. and Arab L. 2001. Garlic and cancer: a critical review of the epidemiologic literature. J. Nutr. 131:1032S–1040S.
Fleischauer A.T., Poole C. and Arab L. 2000. Garlic consumption and cancer prevention: meta-analyses of colorectal and stomach cancers. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72:1047-1052.
Fossen T., Andersen Ø.M., Øvstedal D.O., Pedersen A.T. and Raknes Å. 1996. Characteristic Anthocyanin Pattern from Onions and other Allium spp. J. Food Sci. 61:703-706.
Fredotovic Ž., Šprung M., Soldo B., Ljubenkov I., Budic-Leto I., Bilušic T., Cikeš-Culic V. and Puizina J. 2017. Chemical Composition and Biological Activity of Allium cepa L. and Allium × cornutum (Clementi ex Visiani 1842) Methanolic Extracts. Molecules 22(3):448.
Galeone C., Pelucchi C., Levi F., Negri E., Franceschi S., Talamini R., Giacosa A. and La Vecchia C. 2006. Onion and garlic use and human cancer. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 84:1027-32.
Gao C.M., Takezaki T., Ding J.H., Li M.S. and Tajima K. 1999. Protective effect of allium vegetables against both esophageal and stomach cancer: a simultaneous case-referent study of a high-epidemic area in Jiangsu Province, China. Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 90:614-21.
Geng Z., Rong Y. and Lau B.H. 1997. S-allyl cysteine inhibits activation of nuclear factor kappa B in human T cells. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 23:345-50.
Gennaro L., Leonardi C., Esposito F., Salucci M., Maiani G., Quaglia G. and Fogliano V. 2002. Flavonoid and carbohydrate contents in Tropea red onions: effects of homelike peeling and storage. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50:1904-10.
González C.A., Pera G., Agudo A., Bueno-de-Mesquita H.B., Ceroti M., Boeing H., Schulz M., Del Giudice G., Plebani M., Carneiro F., Berrino F., Sacerdote C., Tumino R., Panico S., Berglund G., Simán H., Hallmans G., Stenling R., Martinez C., Dorronsoro M., Barricarte A., Navarro C., Quiros J.R., Allen N., Key T.J., Bingham S., Day N.E., Linseisen J., Nagel G., Overvad K., Jensen M.K., Olsen A., Tjønneland A., Büchner F.L., Peeters P.H., Numans M.E., Clavel-Chapelon F., Boutron-Ruault M.-C., Roukos D., Trichopoulou A., Psaltopoulou T., Lund E., Casagrande C., Slimani N., Jenab M. and Riboli E. 2006. Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of stomach and oesophagus adenocarcinoma in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC–EURGAST). Int. J. Cancer 118:2559-2566.
Gorinstein S., Leontowicz H., Leontowicz M., Namiesnik J., Najman K., Drzewiecki J., Cvikrová M., Martincová O., Katrich E. and Trakhtenberg S. 2008. Comparison of the Main Bioactive Compounds and Antioxidant Activities in Garlic and White and Red Onions after Treatment Protocols. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56:4418-4426.
Griffiths G., Trueman L., Crowther T., Thomas B. and Smith B. 2002. Onions?A global benefit to health. Phyther. Res.16:603-615.
Guercio V., Galeone C. Turati F. and La Vecchia C. 2014. Gastric cancer and allium vegetable intake: a critical review of the experimental and epidemiologic evidence. Nutr Cancer 66(5):757-773.
Halliwell B., Rafter J. and Jenner A. 2005. Health promotion by flavonoids, tocopherols, tocotrienols, and other phenols: direct or indirect effects? Antioxidant or not? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81:268S-276S.
Han J., Lawson L., Han G. and Han P. 1995. A spectrophotometric method for quantitative determination of allicin and total garlic thiosulfinates. Anal. Biochem. 225:157-160.
Han X., Shen T. and Lou H. 2007. Dietary Polyphenols and Their Biological Significance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 8(9):950-988.
Haza A.I., Coto A.L. and Morales P. 2011. Comparison of the ability of myricetin and quercetin to modulate the oxidative DNA damage induced by heterocyclic amines. Food Nutr. Sci. 2:356-365.
Herman-Antosiewicz A. and Singh S.V. 2004. Signal transduction pathways leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis induction in cancer cells by Allium vegetable-derived organosulfur compounds: a review. Mutat. Res. Mol. Mech. Mutagen. 555:121-131.
Hong Y.-S., Ham Y.-A., Choi J.-H. and Kim J. 2000. Effects of allyl sulfur compounds and garlic extract on the expression of Bcl-2, Bax and p53 in non small cell lung cancer cell lines. Exp. Mol. Med. 32:127-134.
Hsing A.W., Chokkalingam A.P., Gao Y.T., Madigan M.P., Deng J., Gridley G. and Fraumeni J.F. 2002. Allium vegetables and risk of prostate cancer: a population-based study. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 94:1648-1651.
Hu J., La Vecchia C., Negri E., Chatenoud L., Bosetti C., Jia X., Liu R., Huang G., Bi D. and Wang C. 1999. Diet and brain cancer in adults: a case-control study in northeast. China. Int. J. Cancer 81:20–23.
Hughes B.G. and Lawson L.D. 1991. Antimicrobial effects of Allium sativum L. (garlic), Allium ampeloprasum L. (elephant garlic), and Allium cepa L. (onion), garlic compounds and commercial garlic supplement products. Phyther. Res. 5:154-158.
Iciek M., Kwiecien I., Chwatko G., Sokolowska-Jezewicz M., Kowalczyk-Pachel D. and Rokita H. 2012. The effects of garlic-derived sulfur compounds on cell proliferation, caspase 3 activity, thiol levels and anaerobic sulfur metabolism in human hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells. Cell Biochem. Funct. 30:198-204.
Ide N. and Lau B.H. 2001. Garlic compounds minimize intracellular oxidative stress and inhibit nuclear factor-kappa b activation. J. Nutr. 131:1020S-1026S.
Jain I., Jain P., Bisht D., Sharma A., Srivastava B. and Gupta N. 2015. Comparative Evaluation of Antibacterial Efficacy of Six Indian Plant Extracts against Streptococcus Mutans. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 9(2): ZC50-3.
Jaiswal N. and Rizvi S.I. 2014. Onion extract (Allium cepa L.), quercetin and catechin up-regulate paraoxonase 1 activity with concomitant protection against low-density lipoprotein oxidation in male Wistar rats subjected to oxidative stress. J. Sci. Food Agric. 94(13):2752-2757.
Johnson M., Olaleye O.N. and Kolawole O.S. 2016. Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties of Aqueous Garlic (Allium sativum) Extract against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Br. Microbiol. Res. J. 14(1): 1-11.
Kaplan H. and Hutkins R.W. 2000. Fermentation of fructooligosaccharides by lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:2682-2684.
Kaur G., Gupta V., Chistopher A.F. and Bansal P. 2016. Antioxidant potential of commonly used vegetable -onion (Allium cepa L.) J. Altern. Complement. Med. Res.1(1):1-5.
Kelkel M., Cerella C., Mack F., Schneider T., Jacob C., Schumacher M., Dicato M., Diederich M. 2012. ROS-independent JNK activation and multisite phosphorylation of Bcl-2 link diallyl tetrasulfide-induced mitotic arrest to apoptosis. Carcinogenesis 33(11):2162-2171.
Keusgen M. 2011. Volatile Compounds of the Genus Allium L. (Onions). In "Volatile Sulfur Compounds in Food". Qian M. et al. (Ed.), Chapter 9, ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, USA.
Khanum F., Anilakumar K. and Viswanathan K. 2004. Anticarcinogenic Properties of Garlic: A Review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 44:479-488.
Khazaei S., Ramachandran V., Abdul Hamid R., Mohd Esa N., Etemad A., Moradipoor S and Ismail P. 2017. Flower extract of Allium atroviolaceum triggered apoptosis, activated caspase-3 and down-regulated antiapoptotic Bcl-2 gene in HeLa cancer cell line. Biomed. Pharmacother. 89:1216-1226.
Kim J.-H.1997. Anti-bacterial action of onion (Allium cepa L.) extracts against oral pathogenic bacteria. J. Nihon Univ. Sch. Dent. 39:136-141.
Kim H., Moon J.Y., Ahn K.S. and Cho S.K. 2013. Quercetin induces mitochondrial mediated apoptosis and protective autophagy in human glioblastoma U373MG cells. Oxidative Med. Cell Longev. 2013:1-10.
Kim K.M., Chun S.B., Koo M.S., Choi W.J., Kim T.W., Kwon Y.G., Chung H.T., Billiar T.R. and Kim Y.M. 2001. Differential regulation of NO availability from macrophages and endothelial cells by the garlic component S-allyl cysteine. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 30:747-756.
Kim M.-Y., Kim Y.-C. and Chung S.-K. 2005. Identification and in vitro biological activities of flavonols in garlic leaf and shoot: inhibition of soybean lipoxygenase and hyaluronidase activities and scavenging of free radicals. J.Sci. Food Agric. 85:633–640.
Kim S, Kima D.B, Jina W., Parka J., Yoona W., Leea Y., Kima S., Leea S., Kima S., Leeb O.-H., Shina D. and Yooa M. 2018. Comparative studies of bioactive organosulphur compounds and antioxidant activities in garlic (Allium sativum L.), elephant garlic (Allium ampeloprasum L.) and onion (Allium cepa L.). Nat. Prod. Res. 32(10): 1193-1197.
Kim S.R., Jung Y.R., An H.J., Kim D.H., Jang E.J., et al. 2013. Anti-Wrinkle and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Active Garlic Components and the Inhibition of MMPs via NF-kB Signaling. PLoS ONE 8(9):e73877.
Knowles L.M. and Milner J.A. 2000. Diallyl disulfide inhibits p34(cdc2) kinase activity through changes in complex formation and phosphorylation. Carcinogenesis 21:1129-1134.
Koca I., Tekguler B. and Odabas H.I. 2016. Comparison of antioxidant properties of some onion and garlic cultivars grown in Turekey. Acta. Hortic. 1143:207-214.
Kumar S. and Pandey A. 2013. Chemistry and biological activities of flavonoids: an overview. Sci. World J. 2013:1-16.
Kumari M. and Ranjan N. 2014. In vitro antioxidant activity of extract of bulb of allium sativum linn. using dpph and frap assays with evaluation of total phenolic content. Int. J. Bioassays. 3(2):1752-1755.
Kwon K.-B., Yoo S.-J., Ryu D.-G., Yang J.-Y., Rho H.-W., Kim J.-S., Park J.-W., Kim H.-R. and Park B.-H. 2002. Induction of apoptosis by diallyl disulfide through activation of caspase-3 in human leukemia HL-60 cells. Biochem. Pharmacol. 63:41-47.
Lang A., Lahav M., Sakhnini E., Barshack I., Fidder H.H., Avidan B., Bardan E., Hershkoviz R., Bar-Meir S. and Chowers Y. 2004. Allicin inhibits spontaneous and TNF-? induced secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines from intestinal epithelial cells. Clin. Nutr. 23:1199–1208.
Lanzotti V., Scala F. and Bonanomi G. 2014. Compounds from Allium species with cytotoxic and antimicrobial activity. Phytochem. Rev.13(4):769-791.
Lanzotti V. 2006. The analysis of onion and garlic. J. Chromatogr. A 1112:3-22.
Lau B., Tadi P. and Tosk, J.1990. Allium sativum (Garlic) and cancer prevention. Nutr. Res. 10:937-948.
Lawson L., Wood S. and Hughes B. 1991. HPLC Analysis of Allicin and Other Thiosulfinates in Garlic Clove Homogenates. Planta Med. 57:263–270.
Lawson L.D. 1998. Garlic: A Review of Its Medicinal Effects and Indicated Active Compounds. Ch. 14. In "Phytomedicines of Europe: Chemistry and Biological Activity". Series 691. pp. 176–209. Washington DC: ACS.
Lee W.J., Hisao M., Chang J.L., Yang S.F., Tseng T.H., Cheng C.W., Chow J.M., Lin K.H., Lin Y.W. Liu C.C., Lee L.M. and Chien M.H. 2015. Quercetin induces mitochondrial-derived apoptosis via reactive oxygen species-mediated ERK activation in HL-60 leukemia cells and xenograft. Arch. Toxicol. 89(7):1103-1117.
Lee Y.J., Lee D.M. and Lee S.H. 2015. Nrf2 expression and apoptosis in quercetin-treated malignant mesothelioma cells. Mol. Cell 38:416-425.
Lee Y.K., Hwang J.T., Kwon D.Y., Surh Y.J. and Park O.J. 2010. Induction of apoptosis by quercetin is mediated through AMPKalpha1/ASK1/p38 pathway. Cancer Lett. 292:228-236.
Li S., Ma C., Gong G., Liu Z., Chang C. and Xu Z. 2016. The impact of onion juice on milk fermentation by Lactobacillus acidophilus. LWT -Food Sci. Technol. 65:543-548.
Li W., Liu M., Xu Y.F., Feng Y., Che J.P., Wang G.C. nad Zheng J.H. 2014. Combination of quercetin and hyperoside has anticancer effects on renal cancer cells through inhibition of oncogenic microRNA-27a. Oncol. Rep. 31:117-124.
Li W.-R., Shi Q.-S-, Dai H.-Q., Liang Q., Xie X.-B., Huang X.-M., Zhao G.-Z. and Zhang L.-X. 2016. Antifungal activity, kinetics and molecular mechanism of action of garlic oil against Candida albicans. Sci. Rep. 6:22805.
Makita H., Tanaka T., Fujitsuka H., Tatematsu N., Satoh K., Hara A. and Mori H. 1996. Chemoprevention of 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide-induced rat oral carcinogenesis by the dietary flavonoids chalcone, 2-hydroxychalcone, and quercetin. Cancer Res. 56:4904-4909.
Matsuura H. 1997. Phytochemistry of Garlic Horticultural and Processing Procedures. Ch. 7. In " Nutraceuticals: Designer Foods III: Garlic, Soy and Licorice". Lachance P.A. Ph.D (Ed.), pp. 55-69. Food & Nutrition Press, Inc., Trumbull, Connecticut, USA.
Milner J.A. 2001. Mechanisms by which garlic and allyl sulfur compounds suppress carcinogen bioactivation. Garlic and carcinogenesis. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 492:69-81.
Min Kim S., Kubota K. and Kobayashi A. 1997. Antioxidative Activity of Sulfur-containing Flavor Compounds in Garlic. Biosci. Biotech. Biochem 61:1482-1485.
Mishra P.S.M., Kol S., Arnold R. and Mishra R.M. 2016. Pathogenecity of Dental Caries; Isolation and Antimicrobial Efficacy by Herbal Plants. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 5(8): 929-935.
Morrissey J.P. and Osbourn A.E. 1999. Fungal resistance to plant antibiotics as a mechanism of pathogenesis. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 63:708-724.
Mutoh M., Takahashi M., Fukuda K., Komatsu H., Enya T., Matsushima-Hibiya Y., Mutoh H., Sugimura T. and Wakabayashi K. 2000. Suppression by flavonoids of cyclooxygenase-2 promoter-dependent transcriptional activity in colon cancer cells: structure-activity relationship. Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 91:686-691.
Nagaraj N.S., Anilakumar K.R. and Singh O.V. 2010. Diallyl disulfide causes caspase-dependent apoptosis in human cancer cells through a Bax-triggered mitochondiral pathway. J. Nutr. Biochem. 21:405-412.
Ndoye Foe1 F.M.C., Tchinang T.F.K., Nyegue A.M., Abdou J.-P, Yaya A.J.G., Tchinda A.T., Essame J.L.O. and Etoa F.-X. 2016. Chemical composition, in vitro antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of essential oils of four dietary and medicinal plants from Cameroon. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 16:117.
Niu G., Yin S., Xie S., Li Y., Nie D., Ma L., Wang X. and Wu Y. 2011. Quercetin induces apoptosis by activating caspase-3 and regulating Blc-2 and cyclooxygenase-2 pathway in human HL-60 cells. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. 43:30-37.
Nuutila A.M., Puupponen-Pimiä R., Aarni M. and Oksman-Caldentey K.-M. 2003. Comparison of antioxidant activities of onion and garlic extracts by inhibition of lipid peroxidation and radical scavenging activity. Food Chem. 81:485-493.
Nuutila AM, Puupponen-Pimiä R, Aarni M. and Oksman-Caldentey K.M. 2003. Comparison of antioxidant activities of onion and garlic extracts by inhibition of lipid peroxidation and radical scavenging activity. Food Chem. 81:485-493.
O’Gara E.A., Hill D.J. and Maslin D.J. 2000. Activities of garlic oil, garlic powder, and their diallyl constituents against Helicobacter pylori. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:2269-2273.
Ortiz M. 2015. Antimicrobial Activity of Onion and Ginger against two Food Borne Pathogens Escherichia Coli and Staphylococcus Aureus. MOJ Food process Technol. 1(4): 00021.
Osbourn A., Goss R.J.M. and Field R.A. 2011. The saponins –polar isoprenoids with important and diverse biological activities. Nat. Prod. Rep. 28(7):1261-1268.
Pan Y., Zheng Y.M. and Ho W.S. 2018. Effect of quercetin glucosides from Allium extracts on HepG2, PC-3 and HT-29 cancer cell lines. Oncol. Lett. 15:4657-4661.
Panche A.N., Diwan A.D. and Chandra S.R. 2016. Flavonoids: an overview. J. Nutr. Food Sci. 5(47):1-15.
Park J.B. 2011. Effects of typheramide and alfrutamide found in Allium species on cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases. J. Med. Food 14:226-231.
Perchellet J., Perchellet E.M. and Belman S. 1990. Inhibition of DMBA-induced mouse skin tumorigenesis by garlic oil and inhibition of two tumor-promotion stages by garlic and onion oils. Nutr. Cancer 14:183-193.
Petrovska B.B. and Cekovska S. 2010. Extracts from the history and medical properties of garlic. Pharmacogn. Rev. 4:106-110.
Pietta P.G. 2000. Flavonoids as antioxidants. J. Nat. Prod. 63:1035-1042.
Pourzand A., Tajaddini A., Pirouzpanah S., Asghari-Jafarabadi M., Samadi N., Ostadrahimi A.R., Sanaat Z. 2016. Associations between Dietary Allium Vegetables and Risk of Breast Cancer: A Hospital-Based Matched Case-Control Study. J. Breast Cancer 19(3):292-300.
Prasanna V.K. and Venkatesh Y.P. 2015. Characterization of onion lectin (Allium cepa agglutinin) as an immunomodulatory protein inducing Th1-type immune response in vitro. Int. Immunopharmacol 26:304-313.
Quintero-Fabián S., Ortuño-Sahagún D., Vázquez-Carrera M. and López-Roa R.I. 2013. Alliin, a Garlic (Allium sativum) Compound, Prevents LPS-Induced Inflammation in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes. Mediators Inflamm. 2013:381815.
Prakash D., Singh B.N. and Upadhyay G. 2007. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of phenols from onion (Allium cepa). Food Chem. 102:1389-1393.
Pyun M.-S. and Shin S. 2006. Antifungal effects of the volatile oils from Allium plants against Trichophyton species and synergism of the oils with ketoconazole. Phytomedicine 13:394-400.
Raso G.M., Meli R., Di Carlo G., Pacilio M. and Di Carlo R. 2001. Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression by flavonoids in macrophage J774A.1. Life Sci. 68:921-931.
de Lourdes Reis Giada M. 2013. Food Phenolic Compounds: Main Classes, Sources and Their Antioxidant Power. Ch. 4. In "Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases -A Role for Antioxidants". J. A. Morales-González (Ed.), pp.87-112. InTech Publisher.
Ren M.X., Deng X.H., Ai F., Yuan G.Y. and Song H.Y. 2015. Effect of quercetin on the proliferation of the human ovarian cancer cell line SKOV-3 in vitro. Exp. Ther. Med. 10:579-583.
Reuter S., Gupta S.C., Chaturvedi M.M. and Aggarwal B.B. 2010. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and cancer: how are they linked? Free Radic. Biol. Med. 49:1603-16.
Rodrigues A.S., Almeida D.P.F., Simal-Gándara J. and Pérez-Gregorio M.R. 2017. Onions: A Source of Flavonoids, Flavonoids José Justino, IntechOpen, DOI: doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.69896.
Rose P., Whiteman M., Moore P.K. and Zhu Y.Z. 2005. Bioactive S-alk(en) yl cysteine sulfoxide metabolites in the genus Allium: the chemistry of potential therapeutic agents. Nat. Prod. Rep. 22(3):351-368.
Russo M., Spagnuolo C., Bilotto S., Tedesco I., Maiani G and Russo G.L. 2014. Inhibition of protein kinase CK2 by quercetin enhances CD95-mediated apoptosis in human thymus-derived T cell line. Food Res. Int. 63:244-251.
Sakamoto K., Lavvson L.D. and Milner J.A. 1997. Allyl sulfides from garlic suppress the in vitro proliferation of human a549 lung tumor cells. Nutr. Cancer 29:152-156.
Sankaranarayanan R., Varghese C., Duffy S.W., Padmakumary G., Day N.E. and Nair M.K. 1994. A case-control study of diet and lung cancer in Kerala, south India. Int. J. cancer 58:644-649.
Santas J., Almajano M.P. and Carbó R. 2010. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of crude onion (Allium cepa L.) extracts. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 45:403-409.
Seki T., Tsuji K., Hayato Y., Moritomo T. and Ariga T. 2000. Garlic and onion oils inhibit proliferation and induce differentiation of HL-60 cells. Cancer Lett. 160:29-35.
Semmler F.W. 1892. Überdas ätherische Ol des Knoblauchs (Allium sativum). Arch. Pharm. (Weinheim). 230:434-443.
Shams-Ghahfarokhi M., Shokoohamiri M.-R., Amirrajab N., Moghadasi B., Ghajari A., Zeini F., Sadeghi G. and Razzaghi-Abyaneh M. 2006. In vitro antifungal activities of Allium cepa, Allium sativum and ketoconazole against some pathogenic yeasts and dermatophytes. Fitoterapia 77:321-323.
Shin I.S., Hong J., Jeon C.M., Shin N.R., Kwon O.K., Kim H.S., Kim J.C., Oh S.R., Ahn K.S. 2013. Diallyl-disulfide, an organosulfur compound of garlic, attenuates airway inflammation via activation of the Nrf-2/HO-1 pathway and NF-kappaB suppression. Food Chem. Toxicol. 62:506-513.
Siegers C.-P., Röbke A. and Pentz R. 1999a. Effects of garlic preparations on superoxide production by phorbol ester activated granulocytes. Phytomedicine 6:13-16.
Siegers C.-P., Steffen B., Röbke A. and Pentz R. 1999b. The effects of garlic preparations against human tumor cell proliferation. Phytomedicine 6:7-11.
Slimestad R., Fossen T. and Vågen I.M. 2007. Onions: A Source of Unique Dietary Flavonoids. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55:10067-10080.
Sobolewska D., Michalska K., Podolak I. and Grabowska K. 2016. Steroidal saponins from the genus Allium. Phytochem. Rev. 15:1-35.
Sparg S.G., Light M.E. and van Staden J. 2004. Biological activities and distribution of plant saponins. J. Ethnopharmacol. 94:219-243.
Stoll A. and Seebeck E. 1948. Über Alliin, die genuine Muttersubstanz des Knoblauchöls. 1. Mitteilung über Allium-Substanzen. Helv. Chim. Acta 31:189-210.
Suleiman E. and Abdallah W. 2014. In vitro Activity of Garlic (Allium sativum) on Some Pathogenic Fungi. European J. Med. Plants 4(10):1240-1250.
Sundaram S.G. and Milner J.A. 1996. Diallyl disulfide induces apoptosis of human colon tumor cells. Carcinogenesis 17:669-673.
Syed D.N., Adhami V.M., Khan M.I. and Mukhtar H. 2013. Inhibition of Akt/mTOR signaling by the dietary flavonoid fisetin. Anticancer Agents Med. Chem. 13:995-1001.
Štajner D., Igic R., Popovic B.M. and Malencic D. 2008. Comparative study of antioxidant properties of wild growing and cultivated Allium species. Phyther. Res. 22:113-117.
Talalay P. and Fahey J.W. 2001. Phytochemicals from cruciferous plants protect against cancer by modulating carcinogen metabolism. J. Nutr. 131:3027S–3033S.
Tanaka T., Makita H., Kawabata K., Mori H., Kakumoto M., Satoh K., Hara A., Sumida T., Tanaka T. and Ogawa H. 1997a. Chemoprevention of azoxymethane-induced rat colon carcinogenesis by the naturally occurring flavonoids, diosmin and hesperidin. Carcinogenesis 18:957-965.
Tanaka T., Makita H., Ohnishi M., Mori H., Satoh K., Hara A., Sumida T., Fukutani K., Tanaka T. and Ogawa H. 1997b. Chemoprevention of 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide-induced oral carcinogenesis in rats by flavonoids diosmin and hesperidin, each alone and in combination. Cancer Res. 57:246-252.
Thomas A., Thakur S. and Habib R. 2017. Comparison of Antimicrobial Efficacy of Green Tea, Garlic with Lime, and Sodium Fluoride Mouth Rinses against Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillispecies, and Candida albicans in Children: A Randomized Double-blind Controlled Clinical Trial. Int. J. Clin. Pediatr. Dent. 10(3):234-239.
Thomson M., Al-Qattan K.K., Bordia T. and Ali M. 2006. Including garlic in the diet may help lower blood glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides. J. Nutr. 136:800S–802S.
Thomson M. and Ali M. 2003. Garlic [Allium sativum]: a review of its potential use as an anti-cancer agent. Curr. Cancer Drug Targets 3:67–81.
Tocmo R., Liang D., Lin Y. and Huang D. 2015. Chemical and Biochemical Mechanisms Underlying the Cardioprotective Roles of Dietary Organopolysulfides. Front. Nutr. 2:1.
Tsuboki J., Fujiwara Y., Horlad H., Shiraishi D., Nohara T., Tayama S., Motohara T., Saito Y., Ikeda T., Takaishi K., Tashiro H., Yonemoto Y., Katabuchi H., Takeya M. and Komohara Y. 2016. Onionin A inhibits ovarian cancer progression by suppressing cancer cell proliferation and the protumour function of macrophages. Sci. Rep. 6:29588.
Turati F., Pelucchi C., Guercio V., La Vecchia C. and Galeone C. 2015. Allium vegetable intake and gastric cancer: a case-control study and meta-analysis. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 59(1):171-179.
Turati F., Pelucchi C., Guercio V., La Vecchia C. and Galeone C. 2014. Colorectal cancer and adenomatous polyps in relation to allium vegetables intake: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 58(9):1907-1914.
Venâncio P.C., Figueroba S.R., Nani B.D., Ferreira L.E.N., Muniz B.V., de Sá Del Fiol F., Sartoratto A., Rosa E.A.R., Groppo F.C. 2017. Antimicrobial Activity of Two Garlic Species (Allium Sativum and A. Tuberosum) Against Staphylococci Infection. In Vivo Study in Rats. Adv. Pharm. Bull. 7(1):151-121.
Vidya Priyadarsini R., Senthil Murugan R., Maitreyi S., Ramalingam K., Karunagaran D., Nagini S. 2010. The flavonoid quercetin induces cell cycle arrest and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells through p53 induction and NF-?B inhibition. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 15:649(1-3):84-91.
Wadsworth T.L. and Koop D.R., 1999. Effects of the wine polyphenolics quercetin and resveratrol on pro-inflammatory cytokine expression in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Biochem. Pharmacol. 57:941-949.
Wallock-Richards D., Doherty C.J, Doherty L., Clarke D.J., Place M., Govan J.R.W., Campopiano D.J. 2014. Garlic Revisited: Antimicrobial Activity of Allicin-Containing Garlic Extracts against Burkholderia cepacia Complex. PLoS One. 9(12): e112726.
Wang Y., Tian W.-X. and Ma X.-F. 2012. Inhibitory effects of onion (Allium cepa L.) extract on proliferation of cancer cells and adipocytes via inhibiting fatty acid synthase. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 13:5573-5579.
Wargovich M.J. 2006. Diallylsulfide and allylmethylsulfide are uniquely effective among organosulfur compounds in inhibiting CYP2E1 protein in animal models. J. Nutr. 136:832S–834S.
Wertheim T. 1844. Untersuchung des Knoblauchöls. Ann. der Chemie und Pharm. 51:289–315.
WHO 1999. Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants -World Health Organization. Geneva.
Witte J.S., Longnecker M.P., Bird C.L., Lee E.R., Frankl H.D. and Haile R.W. 1996. Relation of vegetable, fruit, and grain consumption to colorectal adenomatous polyps. Am. J. Epidemiol. 144:1015-1125.
Yamada Y. and Azuma K. 1977. Evaluation of the in vitro antifungal activity of allicin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 11:743-749.
Yang C.S., Chhabra S.K., Hong J.Y. and Smith T.J. 2001b. Mechanisms of inhibition of chemical toxicity and carcinogenesis by diallyl sulfide (DAS) and related compounds from garlic. J. Nutr. 131:1041S-1045S.
Yang C.S., Chhabra S.K., Hong J.Y. and Smith, T.J. 2001a. Mechanisms of inhibition of chemical toxicity and carcinogenesis by diallyl sulfide (DAS) and related compounds from garlic. J. Nutr. 131:1041S-1045S.
Yang J.-S., Chen G.-W., Hsia T.-C., Ho H.-C., Ho C.-C., Lin M.-W., Lin S.-S., Yeh R.-D., Ip S.-W., Lu H.-F. and Chung J.-G. 2009. Diallyl disulfide induces apoptosis in human colon cancer cell line (COLO 205) through the induction of reactive oxygen species, endoplasmic reticulum stress, caspases casade and mitochondrial-dependent pathways. Food Chem. Toxicol. 47:171-179.
Yi L., Ji X.X., Lin M., Tan H., Tang Y., Wen L., Ma Y.H. and Su Q. 2010a. Diallyl disulfide induces apoptosis in human leukemia HL-60 cells through activation of JNK mediated by reactive oxygen. Pharmazie. 65(9):693-698.
Yi L., Ji X.X., Tan H., Lin M., Tang Y., Wen L., Ma Y.H., Su Q. 2010b. Role of Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 2 (Rac2), NADPH oxidase and reactive oxygen species in diallyl disulphide-induced apoptosis of human leukaemia HL-60 cells. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 7(12):1147-1153.
Yin M.C., Tsao S.M. 1999. Inhibitory effect of seven Alliumplants upon three Aspergillus species. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 49:49-56.
Yin M-C. and Cheng W. 1998. Antioxidant Activity of Several Allium Members. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46(10):4097-4101.
Yoshida H., Katsuzaki H., Ohta R., Ishikawa K., Fukuda H., Fujino T. and Suzuki A. 1999a. Antimicrobial Activity of the Thiosulfinates Isolated from Oil-Macerated Garlic Extract. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 63:591-594.
Yoshida H., Katsuzaki H., Ohta R., Ishikawa K., Fukuda H., Fujino T. and Suzuki A., 1999b. An Organosulfur Compound Isolated from Oil-Macerated Garlic Extract, and Its Antimicrobial Effect. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 63:588-590.
You W.C., Blot W.J., Chang Y.S., Ershow A., Yang Z.T., An Q., Henderson B.E., Fraumeni J.F. and Wang T.G. 1989. Allium vegetables and reduced risk of stomach cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 81:162-164.
Zhou Y., Zhuang W., Hu W., Liu G., Wu T. and Wu X. 2011. Consumption of Large Amounts of Allium Vegetables Reduces Risk for Gastric Cancer in a Meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 141:80-89.
Zhu B., Zou L., Qi L., Zhong R. and Miao X. 2014. Allium Vegetables and Garlic Supplements Do Not Reduce Risk of Colorectal Cancer, Based on Meta-analysis of Prospective Studies. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 12:1991-2001.