Enhancing nutritional content, inhibiting microbial deterioration, and prolonging the shelf life of food items are paramount in the food sector (Wang and Teplitski, 2023). Interest in natural antimicrobials, which serve as alternatives to the typically favored synthetic compounds, is growing daily (El-Saber Batiha et al., 2021). Natural plant-derived antimicrobials, including phenolics and organic acids, are becoming recognized as viable alternatives to traditional chemical antibacterial agents because to their safety (Vaou et al., 2021).

Polyphenols possess one or more aromatic rings and one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups, which confer their antibacterial characteristics (Bodie et al., 2024; Santiesteban-López et al., 2022). These phytochemical substances are categorized into extracts (typically hydrophilic, derived from aqueous extractions) and essential oils (lipophilic, produced by distillation or extraction using organic solvents) (Alirezalu et al., 2020b; Santiesteban-López et al., 2022). The utilization of food-processing by-products, such as olive oil, mill wastewater, along with fruit and vegetable remnants (peels, seeds, and pomace), and diverse herbs, spices, and flowers (essential oils), is recognized for their natural antimicrobial properties because of their bioactive compounds (Balaban et al., 2021, 2022; Plaskova and Mlcek, 2023; Sar and Akbas, 2023).

Extracts and powders from these plant-based products, exhibiting inherent antimicrobial properties, have been assessed for their ability to enhance the quality of bakery (El-Beltagi et al., 2022), meat (Zaki et al., 2022), and dairy products (El-Kholany et al., 2022) as well as to prolong their shelf life (Sar et al., 2023). These compounds have antibacterial capabilities that suppress the proliferation and viability of harmful microorganisms in food.

However, it is essential to isolate and purify secondary plant metabolites to validate their antibacterial properties and explore possible uses for creating healthier and more stable food products (Alirezalu et al., 2020b; Bodie et al., 2024; Santiesteban-López et al., 2022). Moreover, employing plant extracts in lieu of directly incorporating plant powders offers several benefits. The extracts contain concentrated bioactive molecules, enabling them to demonstrate significant antimicrobial activity at reduced concentrations (Awad et al., 2022), enhance the stability of antimicrobials, lower transport and storage expenses, standardize their composition, and simplify their application in food products (Bodie et al., 2024; Santiesteban-López et al., 2022). Nonetheless, polyphenol combinations exhibit more efficacy than individual compounds; hence, the use of plant extracts is more advantageous than that of singular components (Efenberger-Szmechtyk et al., 2021).

Beetroot is a potential vegetable utilized for the extraction of important compounds. A study demonstrated the antibacterial efficacy of beetroot extract against L. monocytogenes in grilled pork (Gong et al., 2022). The findings demonstrated that this extract induces apoptosis-like death in L. monocytogenes and exhibits significant promise as a natural antibacterial, particularly against L. monocytogenes, with log reductions of 0.27 and 0.84 at 1 MIC and 2 MIC doses, respectively (Santiesteban-López et al., 2022). The authors attributed the bioactivity of beetroot extract to the reduction of intracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP), leading to the dissipation of proton motive force components, membrane depolarization, depletion of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and DNA fragmentation in L. monocytogenes (Gong et al., 2022). An extract from Amaranthus tricolor was evaluated for its antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus and its potential use in reducing foodborne infections in cooked meat (Guo et al., 2020). This extract demonstrated bioactivity against this pathogen (yielding a decrease of 0.5 to 1 log) and, as per the authors, harbors potential to serve as an exceptional biopreservative for ensuring the safety of cooked pork (Santiesteban-López et al., 2022). The antimicrobial activity mechanisms are attributed to the extract, which is abundant in alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, and saponins, resulting in membrane depolarization, pH reduction, intracellular component leakage, DNA cleavage, cell deformation, and ultimately, membrane structural destruction and cell disintegration (Guo et al., 2020). Table 1 summarizes the antimicrobial efficacy of plant-based extracts and essential oils used to control microbial growth in food.

According to Santiesteban-López et al. (2022), the antibacterial efficacy of phenolic compounds may be succinctly stated as follows: hydroxyl groups induce leakage of cellular contents and dissipation of cellular energy (ATP), resulting in cell death. The rise in proton concentration results in a fall in pH and lowers the internal cellular pH. Phenolic acids influence membrane integrity by inducing membrane disruption (e.g., effective against Listeria monocytogenes) and causing coagulation of cellular contents (Santiesteban-López et al., 2022). Anthocyanins exhibit a potent inhibitory effect on E. coli by increasing the Gibbs free energy of adhesion to cells, thereby deterring bacterial attachment. Tannins interact with bacterial polysaccharides and essential metals for microbial metabolism, leading to the precipitation of membrane proteins, which result in enzymatic inhibition, oxidative phosphorylation disruption, lysis, and microbial mortality (Santiesteban-López et al., 2022). Flavonoids interact with membrane proteins, diminishing membrane fluidity, and also induce alterations in energy metabolism, as well as in the synthesis of DNA, proteins, and RNA. Ultimately, certain plant-extract components, including alkaloids, exert their antibacterial effects by DNA intercalation and the suppression of nucleic acid synthesis, thus impeding microbial multiplication (Santiesteban-López et al., 2022).

Nonetheless, essential oils frequently possess a robust aroma and taste, potentially affecting consumer approval and restricting their application in food products (Cao and Miao, 2023). Besides their sensory impacts, botanical-based antimicrobials may exhibit poor compatibility with food matrices or may be rendered ineffective by conventional processing methods (Jackson-Davis et al., 2023). Additional factors encompass discrepancies in the efficacy of extracts derived at various periods from distinct batches of plant material and the potential for bacteria to acquire resistance to chemicals (Bodie et al., 2024; Pinto et al., 2023). Concerns regarding the safety of these chemicals have arisen due to the possible contamination of plants with heavy metals (Iordache et al., 2022), mycotoxins (Ałtyn and Twarużek, 2020), or pesticides (Fillâtre et al., 2017). Hurdle technology should be investigated using essential oils in conjunction with other substances or processing techniques to mitigate the organoleptic impacts of essential oils (Bodie et al., 2024). Proposed methods involve encapsulating essential oils in nanostructures to enhance the shelf life and safety of ready-to-eat (RTE) meats (Jackson-Davis et al., 2023).

Notwithstanding the use of several preservatives to inhibit or slow microbial proliferation in food, the deterioration of food and the incidence of foodborne illnesses remain significant concerns. The resistance of microbes to antimicrobial drugs is becoming problematic, mostly linked to the misuse of these agents in medicine, animal husbandry, and agriculture, especially in developing nations. Numerous studies have documented significant levels of antibiotic residues in food products, including meat (Kamal et al., 2023). The prevalence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infections is rising in clinical environments; hence, rapid remedial actions are necessary to treat these bacterial species (Aslam et al., 2021a, 2021b). Unlike traditional antimicrobial agents that target a restricted number of microbial sites, AMPs possess a broad spectrum of targets, presenting a robust method to mitigate the emergence of resistance (Maria-Neto et al., 2015). AMPs may target many components within bacterial cells, including the cell wall, DNA, RNA, and regulatory enzymes, so enabling them to eliminate diverse bacterial strains, includingMDR bacteria. Besides direct assault, the AMPs safeguard the host through several methods, including the modulation of immunological and inflammatory responses and the preservation of normal gut homeostasis (Kamal et al., 2023). Research on AMPs is proliferating, and substantial data about diverse AMPs are archived in databases (Silveira et al., 2021).

Peptides are among the biomolecules that are responsible for the innate immune system. AMPs are the building blocks of the defense system in any living organism. They are found in almost all living organisms, from bacteria to plants and invertebrates to vertebrates, including mammals (Liu et al., 2021). The AMPs obtained from bacteria are typically referred to as bacteriocins (Rai et al. 2016). Thuricin CD (a two-peptide antimicrobial produced by Bacillus thuringiensis), colicins, microcins, tailocins, pediocins, nisin, enterocins, aureocins, vibriocins, mutacin, cereins, reutericyclin, acidocin, halocins, and sakacin represent significant AMPs of bacterial origin (Huan et al., 2020). AMPs are present in plants, mammals, amphibians, insects, fungi, and many animal species (Huan et al. 2020; Rai et al. 2016). Plant-derived AMPs are amphipathic, cysteine-rich short molecules with a molecular weight of roughly 2–10 kDa (Barashkova and Rogozhin 2020). A diverse array of AMPs is synthesized by insects, offering primary defense against biotic and abiotic stressors (Manniello et al. 2021). Insect AMPs exhibit significant antibacterial efficacy and a reduced likelihood of resistance development against these peptides. Defensins and cathelicidins are the principal AMPs in mammals, exhibiting antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, and antioxidant properties (Dutta and Das 2015; Huan et al., 2020; Kamal et al., 2023).

Employing AMPs to mitigate microbial contamination can circumvent the toxicity associated with chemical additions and the emergence of antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, in contrast to low molecular-weight molecules, AMPs are subject to biodegradation by protease species (Xu et al., 2023). The role of AMPs has facilitated their application in the preservation or storage of several food items, including cheese (Dinika et al., 2020), yoghurt, juice (El-Saber Batiha et al., 2021), vegetables, drinks, and meats (Borrajo et al., 2019). Antimicrobial agents (AMPs) are mostly administered to fresh foods, such as vegetables, fruits, and meats by dipping and spraying techniques (De Souza De Azevedo et al., 2019). A 1% (w/v) Nisaplin solution effectively inhibits Lactobacillus sakei infection in pig samples when applied via spraying (De Souza De Azevedo et al., 2019).

Utilizing a singular sort of antimicrobial agent can preserve meat from contamination for one week at 4°C, irrespective of the application technique. A combination of nisin, natamycin, and citric acid can extend the shelf-life of fruit and vegetable smoothies by up to 14 days (Nieva et al., 2022). In addition to fresh foods, the incorporation of nisin can increase the shelf-life of draft beer by 36 days (Sun et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2023), while the addition of AMPs can prolong the shelf-life of canned products by over 10 days (André et al., 2017). Recent innovative applications of AMPs to control pathogenic microorganisms in food are summarized in Table 2. Enhancing the specificity and stability of AMPs is crucial for maintaining their functionality and preventing the elimination of nontarget cell types (Xu et al., 2023). The characteristics of AMPs dictate their actions against their targets, including microorganisms and human cells (Lazzaro et al., 2020). Numerous studies have shown that AMPs might eradicate species within multi-species communities (Franzenburg et al., 2013; Guo et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2023), suggesting that their specificity may be tailored. Moreover, conjugating an AMP with a targeted moiety is an alternative method to enhance specificity (Song et al., 2020). The categories of AP stability characteristics that can be enhanced are thermostability, pH stability, and protease cleavage tolerance. Numerous ways have been employed to engineer AMPs with specific functionalities and stability, including site-directed mutagenesis (Torres et al., 2019), rational design of AMP secondary structures (Tripathi et al., 2015), and modulation of charge and hydrophobicity (Khara et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2023).

Antimicrobial peptides have been thoroughly investigated as prospective bio-preservatives; however, their interactions with specific food constituents (proteins and fats) and their stability, including proteolytic degradation, may lead to diminished antimicrobial efficacy. To address these limitations, AMPs are utilized for encapsulation (Liu et al., 2021). The encapsulation of peptides in liposomes is extensively documented in prior research, as it offers stability and safeguards against external environmental influences, including chemical and enzymatic alterations, thermal effects, and pH fluctuations (Becerril et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021).

Biologically derived antimicrobials, mostly from microbes and bacteriophages, together with their metabolites, are utilized to inhibit the proliferation of unwanted bacteria and enhance food safety and quality. Microbially derived biologically based antimicrobials demonstrated efficacy in reducing mycotoxins in food products. The biological management of aflatoxins in maize grains, predicated on the competitive exclusion of toxigenic strains by the application of non-toxigenic strains, demonstrated some efficacy (Abbas et al., 2006; Abdelhamid and El-Dougdoug, 2020). Multiple strains of Lactobacillus spp. demonstrated efficacy in the treatment and control of aflatoxins (Abdelhamid and El-Dougdoug, 2020; Palumbo et al., 2006; Sangsila et al., 2016).

Microwaves (MW), a segment of the electromagnetic spectrum with a frequency range of 300 MHz–300 GHz, are widely utilized in food-processing applications, such as drying, tempering, and frying, because of their ability to heat food rapidly and directly (Lee and Jun, 2011). Figure 1 illustrates the microwave-processing system. Consequently, microwave heating can significantly reduce processing duration and effectively preserve important thermo-labile components of food (Coronel et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2016). Microwave treatment is linked to several detrimental effects on seed germination and may lead to diminished grain quality (Dalmoro et al., 2018; Taheri et al., 2020). The detrimental impact of microwaves arises from nonuniform heating resulting from temperature disparities between cold and hot spots (Taheri et al., 2020). Microwaves operate through the dielectric effect, therby heating only regions containing dielectric fluids (e.g., water), resulting in localized hot spots (Sirohi et al., 2021). The adverse effects of microwave therapy can be mitigated by enhancing the homogeneity of radiation and the temperature of hot spots. Methods to mitigate the detrimental impact of microwaves encompass the use of mode stirrers (Ye et al., 2017), the agitation of particles by hot air (Kudra, 1989; Sirohi et al., 2021), and the meticulous regulation of surface temperature and microwave power (Koné et al., 2013).

Analogous to microwave heating, radio frequency (RF) heating, categorized as dielectric heating, swiftly and uniformly warms solid or semisolid food products (Lee et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2003). Radio frequency is a nonionizing wave with a wavelength of up to 11 m and a frequency range of 1–300 MHz (Hassan et al., 2019). Radio frequency waves are electromagnetic waves capable of penetrating dielectric materials and generating heat volumetrically by ionic polarization or dipole rotation (Hassan et al., 2019; Hou et al., 2016). The schematic oultine of the radio frequency heating process is shown in Figure 2. Radio waves have greater penetration capabilities than microwaves, attributable to their longer wavelength, resulting in a larger penetration depth (Sirohi et al., 2021). The moisture content of material is the primary component influencing the dielectric characteristics and enhancing heating uniformity throughout the radio frequency process (Sacilik and Colak, 2010). Food grains function as dielectric materials, serving as electric capacitors and resistors to store and transfer electrical energy into heat energy when exposed to an electromagnetic field (Ling et al., 2020).

Jiao et al. (2017) indicated that the modest radio frequency heating for 5 min effectively eradicated juvenile rice weevils (eggs and adults) in rough, brown, and milled rice. Radio frequency treatment of maize seeds indicated that elevated moisture content decreased the thermal resistance of Aspergillus parasiticus, resulting in a 5–6 log reduction at 70°C in hot air for 12 min at 15% moisture content on a wet basis (Zheng et al., 2017). It may be inferred that an increase in the moisture content of grain seeds enhances fungus suppression by radio frequency therapy (Ling et al., 2020). Besides the disinfestation and disinfection of grains, the impact of radio frequency treatment on grain quality is examined to assess storage stability, customer acceptance, and market viability (Hassan et al., 2019; Ling et al., 2020).

The radio frequency treatment of maize grains (14% moisture on a wet basis) infected with maize weevils at 50–60°C did not modify the main structure of proteins and enhanced the emulsifying and oil-holding characteristics (Hassan et al., 2019). Radio frequency treatment at 57°C resulted in the total eradication of rice moths without affecting the fat, protein, or moisture content of milled rice while enhancing sensory characteristics and cooking quality (Yang et al., 2018). Radio frequency treatment at temperatures of more than 100°C may enhance the creation of superior emulsions and adsorbents, while lower temperatures might maintain functional qualities and diminish infestations (Sirohi et al., 2021). Radio frequency heating may improve uniformity in surface heating of food products, thereby reducing thermal lag between the surface and the interior (Richardson, 2001); however, the rate of radio frequency heating is significantly influenced by the dielectric properties of food (Birla et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2016).

Ohmic heating, also known as Joule heating, electrical resistance heating, or electroconductive heating, operates on the basis that most food items possess the capacity to resist the flow of electric current (Pereira and Vicente, 2010). This is a contemporary thermal-processing method that involves passing an electric current through food, producing heat because of food’s electrical resistance (Maspeke et al., 2024; Varghese et al., 2014). In contrast to microwave and radio frequency heating, ohmic heating possesses an unrestricted penetration depth. In ohmic heating, the electrode must maintain contact with food that possesses adequate volumetric heat to regulate energy. Unlike conventional thermal processing, ohmic heating consistently elevates the temperature of food, resulting in a superior product with minimum nutritional degradation (Deeth and Datta, 2011). Ohmic heating preserves nutrients by averting the scorching of some regions of the product (Maspeke et al., 2024). This method can uniformly heat bigger food particles (up to 2.54 cm), a capability that conventional heating fails to provide (Deeth and Datta, 2011; Kaur and Singh, 2016).

Ohmic heating has potential for food processing, particularly for heating liquid meals with substantial particles, such as soups, stews, and fruit slices in syrups and sauces, as well as heat-sensitive liquids (Cho et al., 2016; Kaur and Singh, 2016; Saxena et al., 2016; Soisungwan et al., 2020). Ohmic heating offers the food business the potential to produce products of higher quality, increased value, and better nutritional preservation (Turgut et al., 2021; Varghese et al., 2014). Ohmic heating demonstrates effective preservation of nutritional and phytochemical content as well as sensory attributes of food items (Gavahian and Chu, 2022; Guida et al., 2013; Makroo et al., 2017; Negri Rodríguez et al., 2021). Moreover, the synthesis of furan, a carcinogenic substance generated during heating, transpires at a diminished rate in ohmic heating, compared to conventional heating (Hradecky et al., 2017; Maspeke et al., 2024).

Additional significant advantages attributed to ohmic heating technology, as noted by Pereira and Vicente (2010), encompass the rapid attainment of temperatures necessary for high-temperature short-time (HTST) processes, compatibility with continuous processing devoid of heat transfer surfaces, uniform heating of liquids with accelerated heating rates, diminished issues of surface fouling or product overheating, and the production of fresher-tasting, higher-quality products. Additional advantages encompass the absence of residual heat transfer post-current cessation, minimal heat losses, efficacy in pre-heating items prior to canning, reduced maintenance expenses because of the absence of moving components, and elevated energy conversion efficiencies within an environmentally sustainable framework. The potential industrial uses of ohmic heating are extensive and encompass blanching, drying, evaporation, dehydration, and fermentation (Alkanan et al., 2021). Ohmic heating technique facilitates the use of elevated pasteurization temperatures because of its very quick heating proportions, thereby enhancing refrigerated shelf life without causing coagulation or severe denaturation of the constituent proteins (Alkanan et al., 2021). Consequently, the emphasis of ohmic heating is presently directed on thermal-processing procedures for food preservation, because this technology may be realized in a continuous in-line heater for cooking and sterilization (Pereira and Vicente, 2010).

Nonetheless, ohmic applications in the food sector have many drawbacks, including the possible loss of heat-sensitive elements, such as vitamins and polyphenols, elevated equipment costs, and the necessity for rigorous process control to guarantee uniform heat dispersion. Ohmic heating presents significant challenges at the industrial scale, since differences in particle size and food content could affect heat dispersion (Alkanan et al., 2021; Maspeke et al., 2024; Rinaldi et al., 2020).

Infrared is a segment of the electromagnetic spectrum situated between microwaves and the visible area, with wavelengths ranging from 0.5 μm to 100 μm (Sirohi et al., 2021). Infrared radiation, a segment of electromagnetic spectrum, is categorized into three sections (near-, mid-, and far-infrared) based on their spectral wavelengths (Lee et al., 2016). Infrared radiation is utilized in several thermal processes because of its intrinsic benefits, including surface radiation impact on food and swift penetration into food items (Datta and Ni, 2002; Lee et al., 2016; Sakai and Hanzawa, 1994). Infrared light penetration induces vibrational motion in water molecules, resulting in heat creation (Aboud et al., 2019; Sakai and Hanzawa, 1994). Infrared technology is energy-efficient, environmentally sustainable, and requires less water than traditional heating methods. It demonstrates several benefits, including reduced heating duration, uniform heating, minimal energy usage, elevated heat-transfer efficiency, and enhanced product quality (Sirohi et al., 2021). Owing to these characteristics, infrared technology is utilized in numerous food-manufacturing processes, including drying, peeling, boiling, polyphenol recovery, antioxidant recovery, heating, freeze-drying, roasting, microbiological inhibition, sterilization of grains, juice and bread production, and cooking (Aboud et al., 2019). Infrared treatment of mung beans for 5 min at an intensity of 0.29 kW/m² at a temperature of 70°C resulted in total visible suppression of fungal growth (Meenu et al., 2018). The limited penetration depth of infrared diminishes its efficacy with greater food thickness, making it more suitable for sterilizing food surfaces (Aboud et al., 2019). The catalytic infrared emitter is employed to combat rice weevils, merchant grain beetles, and saw-toothed grain beetles (Sirohi et al., 2021). A brief exposure of 60 s is often adequate to manage insects that infest the exterior or inside of stored grains (Ramaswamy et al., 2012; Sirohi et al., 2021). Infrared tempering treatment is beneficial for grain modification. Freshly harvested raw and stored rice contaminated with Aspergillus flavus spores underwent infrared tempering treatment and infrared heating (Wang et al., 2014).

Ultraviolet radiation technology is a nonthermal method and a viable alternative to conventional thermal treatments for the pasteurization of food items (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023).

Ultraviolet radiation is an economical therapy that does not produce chemical residues, thus qualifying as green technology (Yuan et al., 2021). In the food business, ultraviolet light is mostly utilized for the decontamination of surfaces, equipment, food packaging, and air disinfection (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). The various categories of ultraviolet light include UV-A (315–400 nm), which has a relatively longer wavelength and penetrates the epidermis and dermis; UV-B, known as ‘burn rays’ (280–315 nm), which can cause skin burns and skin cancer; UV-C, referred to as the ‘germicidal range’ (200–280 nm), which effectively eliminates pathogenic microbes; and vacuum-UV (100–200 nm), which can inactivate various human microbes (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023; Delorme et al. 2020). Consequently, UV-C radiation represents the greatest energy segment of the Ultraviolet radiation spectrum and is among the most effective developing technologies utilized in food processing, exhibiting superior energy efficiency relative to traditional heat treatments (Ramos et al., 2024).

Ultraviolet irradiation induces DNA damage, resulting in a fatal impact on microorganisms. Exposure to ultraviolet light generates cyclobutene pyrimidine dimers in DNA, thereby obstructing fresh DNA synthesis and eventually hindering microbial development. UV-C radiation (200–280 nm) is an effective method for destroying microbial DNA (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Ultraviolet irradiation is suggested as a germicide because of its fatal impact on several microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungus, and algae (Shin et al., 2016).

Among the four ultraviolet wavelength ranges, UV-C light has significant germicidal efficacy (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Historically, UV-C has primarily been utilized for surface disinfection; however, recent decades have demonstrated its potential for direct application in various food matrices, including vegetables, meat products, and beverages (Atik and Gumus, 2021; Hosseini et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2017). The germicidal efficacy of UV-C light on human enteroviruses in water was investigated by utilizing a device that emits polychromatic light wavelengths of 260 and 280 nm (Woo et al., 2019). Findings indicated that ultraviolet light-emitting diodes (LEDs) efficiently inactivated the examined enteroviruses (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Ultraviolet radiation at 260 nm or 280 nm is the most effective wavelength for demonstrating significant inactivation properties in water treatment; however, because to its reduced cost and enhanced effectiveness, the 280-nm wavelength is preferred (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023; Li et al., 2019).

UV-C light was employed to cleanse vegetative cells and spores of Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris introduced in orange juice (Zhai et al., 2021). Vegetative cells and spores were decreased by 6.04 log CFU/mL and 2.49 log CFU/mL, respectively, following UV-C treatment at 275 nm for 220 mJ/cm². Despite observable color alterations and a little reduction in total phenolic content, the UV-C light treatment did not significantly affect the physicochemical qualities of the juice (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Furthermore, UV-C radiation is regarded as an effective method for diminishing harmful microorganisms in dairy products. The efficacy of UV-C light in eradicating pathogenic bacteria in skimmed milk was assessed utilizing a collimated beam at a wavelength of 253.7 nm (Delorme et al., 2020). The findings indicated that a UV-C dosage of 40 mJ/cm² effectively inactivated over 5 log of E. coli ATCC 25922, Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 13311, and L. monocytogenes ATCC 19115 (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023; Gunter-Ward et al. 2018).

Nanotechnology involves the examination and utilization of minuscule entities at the nanometre scale throughout several scientific domains. Increasing customer apprehensions over food quality and health advantages are driving researchers to identify methods that might improve food quality while minimally affecting the product’s nutritional value. The need for nanoparticle-based products in the food sector has risen, as many include vital nutrients and are deemed nontoxic (Roselli et al., 2003; Singh et al., 2017). Nanotechnology enables the manipulation and modification of materials and systems at the nanoscale, resulting in properties that differ markedly from those at a larger scale.

The uses of nanotechnology in the food business may be categorised into two primary groups: food nanostructured ingredients and food nanosensing (Singh et al., 2017). Food nanostructured substances span a broad spectrum, including food processing and packaging. In food processing, these nanostructures serve as food additives, carriers for the intelligent delivery of nutrients, anti-caking agents, antimicrobial agents, and fillers to enhance the mechanical strength and durability of packaging materials. Additionally, food nanosensing is utilized to improve food quality and safety assessment (Ezhilarasi et al., 2013; Singh et al., 2017). Nanotechnology has novel prospects for microbial regulation in food. Antimicrobial nanomaterials, including silver and copper nanoparticles, have inhibitory effects against many foodborne bacteria. These compounds are integrated into food packaging, coatings, and surfaces to inhibit microbial contamination (Herrera et al., 2023). Nanotechnology in the food industry includes the use of nanosensors, nanomaterials, nanocomposites, nanoencapsulation, and nanocoatings. Nanosensors detect carcinogens in food products, signal food spoilage by indicating minor alterations in gas composition and color, raise awareness among consumers and distributors regarding food safety by identifying pathogens, and monitor changes in the storage environment, including microbial contamination and fluctuations in temperature and humidity that may lead to food degradation (Girthie John Britto et al., 2023).

Inorganic and organic nanoparticles are employed in antibacterial food packaging to preserve the color and stability of food items while preventing development of microbial biofilm. Figure 4 outlines the nanoformulation-based system for food grain decontamination. Nanoparticles inhibit moisture loss by limiting oxygen permeation into food containers, thus preserving food freshness for extended storage period. Nanocomposites, formed by integrating nanoparticles with polymers, enhance quality and extend the shelf life of many food items. Many bioactive chemicals found in dietary items frequently degrade under severe environmental circumstances (Girthie John Britto et al., 2023). The nanoencapsulation of bioactive substances prolongs food’s shelf life by mitigating or preventing degradation until reaching the target location.

Nanocoatings comprise homogenous layers of nanoparticles measuring between 10 nm and 100 nm, utilized for detecting small storage pollutants. Nanocoatings efficiently preserve antibrowning agents, antioxidants, enzymes, flavors, and colors by inhibiting gaseous exchange and moisture in diverse food substances. One notable benefit of nanocoatings is their ability to preserve the shelf life of processed food items even after opening of packaging. Although nanotechnology offers benefits in food safety, other potential problems still remain. Controversies surrounding the use of nanoparticles in food-processing sectors and their potential toxicological consequences must be addressed to alleviate public apprehensions (Girthie John Britto et al., 2023).

High-pressure processing, a highly advanced nonthermal method, is extensively utilized to inactivate pathogenic microorganisms and enzymatic activity, including pectin methyl esterases (PMEs), in food products without prior thermal treatment at isostatic pressure (Lee et al., 2016; Torrecilla et al., 2005). HPP is a pasteurization method that subjects a food product to ultra-high pressure between 100 MPa and 600 MPa. During pasteurization, food is enclosed in an airtight vessel and subjected to ultra-high pressure, utilizing water as a pressure medium (Yamamoto, 2017). Furthermore, the pasteurization impact of HPP is unaffected by the packing volume of the food; hence, items of varying quantities may be treated concurrently in the same batch. In contrast to traditional thermal food-processing methods, HPP may be conducted at ambient temperature, thus reducing production costs by conserving energy related to heating and subsequent cooling during sterilization (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). It deactivates harmful microbes and enzymes while preserving the food’s sensory and nutritional attributes (Khaliq et al., 2021). HPP can inactivate vegetative microorganisms by compromising cell membranes, denaturing proteins, and degrading intracellular proteins (Yang et al. 2021). Spores, the most dormant form of dangerous bacteria, such as Bacilli and Clostridia, exhibit remarkable resistance to heat, dehydration, and both physical and chemical stressors. Consequently, HPP may serve as a promising method to suppress spore-forming microbes in both raw and processed post-packaged food, thereby attaining improved quality, safety, and stability (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2020).

High-pressure processing has the potential to eradicate pathogens in packaged products and can serve as an antibacterial component within hurdle technology, in combination with other nonthermal food sterilization methods, without modifying the original process (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). The use of HPP for a treatment duration of 30 s effectively inactivates harmful bacteria, molds, and yeasts in food, hence enhancing food safety and prolonging the shelf life of final products (Hwang and Fan 2015). For example, apple juice subjected to HPP pressure ranging from 139 MPa to 561 MPa for 39–181 s resulted in the inactivation of L. monocytogenes, E. coli O157:H7, and S. enterica (Petrus et al., 2020). Another investigation indicated that L. monocytogenes strains exhibited little resistance to pressure treatments of 450 MPa for 10 min and 600 MPa for 5 min at low water activity in sliced dry-cured ham (Pérez-Baltar et al., 2020). The examination of Aspergillus flavus conidia inactivation using HPP showed that a treatment at 600 MPa for 3 min eradicated 107 CFU/mL of viable fungus and reduced spore viability (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023; Hsiao et al. 2021).

A solitary HPP treatment may be inadequate for eradicating pathogens; nevertheless, when coupled with additional methods, such as heat, it can efficiently eliminate foodborne bacterial spores (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Ultra-high temperature system utilizing pressure assistance successfully inactivated spores of Bacillus subtilis 168 and Clostridium sporogenes PA3679 when subjected to 600 MPa and 700 MPa at 121°C for <1 min (Liang et al. 2019). A log decrease of 6.75 was observed for Bacillus subtilis spores and a reduction of >5 logs for spores of Clostridium sporogenes. The HPP facilitated spore germination, making the spores vulnerable to inactivation by elevated temperatures (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023).

Pulsed light is a recognized alternative method for pathogen inactivation in food. It comprises powerful, brief bursts of broad-spectrum light with a wavelength distribution ranging from 100 nm to 1100 nm: ultraviolet light (100–400 nm), visible light (400–700 nm), and infrared light (700–1,100 nm) (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). In contrast to ultraviolet light, which uses low- or medium-pressure mercury lamps for germicidal radiation in the treatment of liquid foods and drinks, pulsed light disinfection utilizes inert-gas flash lamps (Delorme et al. 2020; Li and Farid 2016). The process of photoluminescence is nearly analogous to ultraviolet light, which may similarly harm cellular structure by destroying DNA. The antibacterial efficacy of pulsed light against E. coli was examined (Zhu et al. 2019). Pulsed light was observed to alter the morphology, endoenzymes, enterocytes, respiratory metabolism, and DNA synthesis of E. coli O157:H7. Pulsed light therapy significantly decreased proteins, ATP, and DNA levels. It decreased the activity of ATPase, β-galactosidase, and alkaline phosphatase as well as the metabolism of E. coli O157:H7 (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Microscopic investigation revealed that pulsed light treatment significantly compromised the cell membrane of E. coli O157:H7. Consequently, pulsed light can serve as an efficacious solution for eradicating dangerous bacteria while extending the shelf life of food products (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023).

Pulsed light is a potential method for deactivating unwanted and spoilage bacteria, both in vitro and in food, without compromising quality features (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). The application of pulsed light at varying fluences (1.25–18 J/cm²) effectively diminished numerous pathogens present in fresh chicken meat, achieving reductions of 0.9–2.4 log for Salmonella enteritidis, 1.1–2.0 log for Listeria monocytogenes, 1.3–3.0 log for Staphylococcus aureus, 1.1–2.9 log for Pseudomonas, 1.3–3.0 log for Brochothrix thermosphacta, and 1.5–1.8 log for Carnobacterium divergens (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). The elimination of pathogens in strawberries with pulsed light processing extended fruit’s shelf life and preserved physicochemical properties (Cao et al., 2019). The results indicated a marginal drop in artificially deposited Salmonella levels (0.4 to 0.8 log) and a significant reduction in mould proliferation by 2 to 4 days relative to the untreated control. Ultraviolet and pulsed light exhibit promising efficacy in eradicating bacteria in food; yet a coordinated effort is required in the future to comprehensively elucidate their effects and antimicrobial mechanisms (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023).

Pulsed UV-A radiation within the wavelength range of 315–400 nm has bactericidal properties by damaging the DNA/RNA strands of bacteria (Sirohi et al., 2021). PEF is a novel food-processing technique that utilizes the phenomena of electroporation or electropermeabilization of the cell membrane by brief electrical pulses (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Successful decontamination of specific microorganisms via PEF necessitates the careful selection of operational parameters, such as electric field strength and the duration and frequency of pulse treatment, as these factors influence the reversibility of cell membrane permeability (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Brief bursts of high-intensity ultraviolet light can efficiently eliminate pathogenic microbes in low-moisture foods, including cereal grains (Sirohi et al., 2021). The use of 395-nm pulsed light may achieve a 2.91 log decrease of Salmonella spp. in wheat flour following a 60-min treatment (Du et al., 2020). The efficacy of PEF treatment in inactivating food spoilage bacteria in apple juice was evaluated (Dziadek et al. 2019). Consequently, PEF reduced bacterial load in apple juice while preserving the concentration of beneficial chemicals. The use of PEF is gaining commendation as a substitute for heat treatment in the preservation of juice, liquid eggs, milk, and soups (Nowosad et al. 2021).

While PEF technology has considerable potential, its efficacy in addressing some infections found in milk products is restricted if utilized in isolation (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Consequently, the synergistic use of PEFs alongside a moderate thermal treatment was investigated to enhance the safety and preserve the quality of dairy products. Mild heating with PEF enhanced the shelf life of milk products by achieving a 3.0–6.0 log decrease in microbial load (Alirezalu et al. 2020a). Despite PEF being a viable food-processing technique, now employed by several enterprises for the treatment of liquids (such as tomato juice) and solids (such as potatoes) (Ostermeier et al. 2020), its adoption within the food sector remains limited. This arises from some challenges intrinsic to the technology, including the initial requirement to pressurize and degas the product to prevent electrical discharge difficulties (Ostermeier et al. 2020). Nonetheless, PEF must be integrated with additional processing techniques to get improved inactivation proportions (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023).

Ultrasound is considered as a nonthermal-processing technique with the potential to serve as a viable alternative to thermal food-processing methods (Rastogi, 2011). It involves the utilization of ultrasound at low temperatures, applicable to temperature-sensitive items in which there is apprehension over nutritional degradation, such as vitamin C loss, protein denaturation, and non-enzymatic browning (Ravikumar et al., 2017). Ultrasound is employed for biofilm removal and should be augmented by further inactivation techniques. Consequently, high-power, low-frequency ultrasound (20–100 kHz) is deemed effective in inhibiting microorganisms during food processing because of its capacity to induce cavitation (Jiang et al., 2020). An examination of the inactivation of E. coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Bacillus subtilis using ultrasonic cavitation established that the frequency and acoustic strength were contingent upon specific bacteria or fungi (Hashimoto et al. 2020). While disinfection with ultrasonic waves is a novel method for enhancing food quality because of its bactericidal properties (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023; Cao et al. 2018), its standalone application at ambient temperature has demonstrated limited effectiveness against microbes. Consequently, it is advisable to integrate this technology with additional challenges (pressure, heat, or both) to enhance total disinfection (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Ultrasound primarily inactivates bacteria through cavitation phenomena. This gadget generates ultrasonic vibrations that induce the formation of gas bubbles in the liquid media (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Upon reaching a specific size threshold, the bubbles collapse, producing intense shear forces within the fluid and severe temperatures and pressures at the point of implosion (Delmas and Barthe 2015). These severe circumstances incapacitate microorganisms. The efficacy of ultrasonic therapy primarily relies on specific targeted microorganisms (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Prolonged ultrasonication reduced inoculated vegetative cells (5 log CFU/mL) of thermoduric Bacillus coagulans in skimmed milk (Bawa, 2016). A 92% inactivation rate was observed following 12 rounds, with each pass lasting for 80 s. The inactivation rate mounted to 99.98% with the combination of ultrasonication and pasteurization at 63°C for 30 min. This outcome indicated enhanced efficiency of ultrasonication if coupled with thermal treatment (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023).

Nonetheless, prolonged exposure is necessary to eliminate or inactivate stable enzymes and/or bacteria, which may result in significant energy demands. The use of ultrasound may increase temperature, contingent upon ultrasonic strength and duration of application, necessitating regulation to optimize the process (Zheng and Sun, 2006). Ultrasonic treatment may effectively inactivate foodborne microorganisms, with enhanced effectiveness, if used in conjunction with other methods, such as heat or chemicals.

Food irradiation employs low-ionizing radiation for the purpose of microbiological disinfection. Ionizing radiation sources for food irradiation have encompassed gamma rays, electron beams (e-beams), and X-rays (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023; Ehlermann, 2016). Food irradiation is a safe technology that has been deemed ‘wholesome,’ indicating that the consumption of irradiated food poses no damage to human health (Levy and Villavicencio, 2020). Nonetheless, consumers consider ionization irradiation as unacceptable, perceiving it as an unsafe processing procedure because of a misconception conflating radioactive food with irradiated food (Levy and Villavicencio, 2020).

Notwithstanding consumer hesitance, China and Vietnam are among the nations now employing irradiation on specific items, including herbs, spices, and vegetables (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Products subjected to irradiation must adhere to international criteria for radiation sources: X-rays (bremsstrahlung), electron beams (up to 10 MeV), and gamma rays (from radionuclides or caesium-137 isotopes) (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). Gamma irradiation has greater penetrating depth, compared to electron beams and X-rays. Food irradiation is the favored approach because of its beneficial effects on harmful bacteria and its ability to preserve the quality of dairy products (Levy and Villavicencio, 2020). Nonetheless, the necessary radiation can affect microbial burden as well as microbial resistance. Additional factors influence irradiation efficiency, including the product’s status (fresh or frozen), ambient temperature, chemical makeup, and moisture content (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023).

Irradiation eliminates foodborne pathogens by destroying microbial DNA and obstructing cell division through the inhibition of DNA synthesis. Ionizing radiation possesses adequate strength to penetrate bacterial cell membranes and impact cellular components (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023). It induces DNA mutations and generates peroxides. As these mutations proliferate, they ultimately result in cellular demise. The buildup of oxidizing agents results in cell lysis and subsequent cell death (Li and Farid 2016). This method is suitable for sterilizing items that are marketed without heat treatment, diminishing hazardous substances in food, and decelerating the deterioration of fruits and vegetables (Bevelacqua and Mortazavi, 2020).

The efficacy of food irradiation (gamma radiation) treatment (0.5–5 kGy) was evaluated to ensure microbiological safety of a ready-to-bake vegetable products and its impact on nutritional properties during cold storage (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2020). A food irradiation treatment dosage of 2 kGy reduced the microbial load encompassing yeast and mould. The nutritional content of vegetables was maintained with the same irradiation dose, even after 20 days of storage (Molina-Chavarria et al. 2020). Food irradiation remains an excellent nonthermal technique for diminishing foodborne bacteria; nonetheless, meticulous and precise radiation dosimetry is essential for regulating the irradiation process. Subjecting food to high amounts of irradiation can produce radioactive materials, offering possible health concerns to consumers, such as health malfunction or cancer (Ashrafudoulla et al., 2023).