Health consciousness reflects an individual’s focus on maintaining their health by engaging in healthy habits such as consuming nutritious diets (Barauskaite et al., 2018). It encourages consumers to seek preventive health measures and increases their attitude toward healthy food purchases (Mai and Hoffmann, 2012). Plant-based foods are typically perceived as a healthy choice (Fehér et al., 2020; Rondoni et al., 2021), with health concerns being a major driver for adopting plant-based diets (Bryngelsson et al., 2022) and reducing meat consumption (Lentz et al., 2018). Based on this investigation, the hypothesis is formulated as follows.

Healthiness influence will positively influence attitude toward PBMA

Green consciousness refers to consumers’ concern for environmental issues and their willingness to take action to address them (Dunlap, 2010). Environmentally conscious consumers are more persuaded to make eco-friendly purchase decisions. Adopting a plant-based diet can improve resource use efficiency and minimize environmental impacts (Candy et al., 2019; Fehér et al., 2020), providing benefits such as mitigating global warming and pollution (Kökény, 2009; Leitzmann, 2014) while addressing the negative environmental effects of meat production (Vanhonacker et al., 2013). Several studies (Chen, 2022; Miguel et al., 2020; Tosun et al., 2021) have identified environmental concern as a significant predictor for adopting a plant-based diet. Accordingly, the following hypothesis has been proposed.

Environmental concern will positively influence attitude toward PBMA

Animal welfare refers to the overall quality of life of animals, including their health, emotions, and living condition (Wolf and Tonsor, 2017), reflecting respect for their well-being. Concern for animal welfare and the moral implications of killing animals often drive the shift toward vegetarianism or veganism (Petti et al., 2017). Consumers who support antispeciesism hold the beliefs that all species should receive equal moral consideration, opposing the use of animals for human consumption (Espinosa and Treich, 2021). Individuals who prioritize animal welfare tend to consume less meat, suggesting that animal welfare could be a significant factor affecting an individual’s dietary choice (Clonan et al., 2015; De Backer and Hudders, 2015). Animal welfare is the primary motive for adopting a vegan lifestyle (Miguel et al., 2020), influencing the attitude toward plant-based diets. Considering these aspects, the following hypothesis has been formulated.

Animal welfare concerns will positively influence attitude toward PBMA

Individual’s food choices are a complex behavior influenced by both sensory attributes of the food, such as its taste, smell, and texture, along with nonfood attributes such as societal factors, rational information, and geographic conditions (Chen, 2007). Steptoe et al. (1995) identified nine key motives for food consumption, including “Health, sensory appeal, mood, convenience, natural content, familiarity, weight control, and ethical considerations.” Sensory characteristics of foods are often found to be the most significant factor influencing individual consumption decisions (Bryła, 2016; Chekima et al., 2017; Ditlevsen et al., 2019). The lack of artificial ingredients and residues (Nandi et al., 2017; Sondhi, 2014), along with factors like price (de Oliveira Padilha et al., 2022) and emotions (Chen, 2007), also play a significant role in determining consumers’ food choice. In the context of plant-based diet including PBMA, prior research observed the effect of health and environmental concerns on the consumer behavior, revealing that ethical considerations have an influential positive impact on adoption of PBMA (Bakr et al., 2023; Cornovan, 2022; Wang and Scrimgeour, 2021). Some studies explored the impact of sensory attributes on the consumption of plant-based foods, showing that it plays an important role in determining consumers’ purchase decisions (Michel et al., 2021a; Niimi et al., 2022). Based on these previous studies, food choice determinants such as health, sensory appeal, naturalness, cruelty-free and sustainability dimensions adopted from (Bakr et al., 2023; Steptoe et al., 1995) will be examined in this study, suggesting the following hypotheses.

Health as a food choice determinant will positively influence attitude toward PBMA

Sensory appeal as a food choice determinant will positively influence attitude toward PBMA

Naturalness as a food choice determinant will positively influence attitude toward PBMA

Sustainability as a food choice determinant will positively influence attitude toward PBMA

Cruelty free as a food choice determinant will positively influence attitude toward PBMA

Meat has been an important part of human diets across various cultures, valued for its high-quality protein, and easily absorbed iron and vitamins. Meat consumption is driven by factors such as its affordability, enjoyment, traditional habits, and the perceived challenges in preparing vegetarian meals (Clonan et al., 2016; Verbeke et al., 2010). Furthermore, meat intake is often associated with masculinity, strength, power, and affluence (Sares-Jäske et al., 2022). The primary reason for not reducing meat intake is the belief that it is essential for a healthy diet. Evidence shows that the perceived importance of meat in terms of nutritional and sensory aspects plays a major role in adopting plant-based diets (De Koning et al., 2020; Schouteten et al., 2016). The hypothesis is formulated as follows.

The perceived meat importance (nutritional value and sensory appeal) will negatively influence attitude toward PBMA

The preliminary reaction to a novel food is a critical determinant of its success in gaining consumer acceptance. Food neophobia and neophilia (food curiosity) are the psychological traits of an individual that can lead to either avoidance or acceptance of a particular product (Lähteenmäki and Arvola, 2001). Because the plant-based meat market is still emerging, assessing the effect of consumers’ initial reaction on behavioral intention is of great importance. According to Hwang et al. (2020), food neophilia and food neophobia as the initial reaction are considered significant factors for predicting the consumption of PBMA. As a result, we use food curiosity and neophobia as key factors for evaluating consumers’ attitudes toward PBMA.

Food Curiosity will positively influence attitude toward PBMA

Food neophobia will negatively influence attitude toward the PBMA

The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) suggests that the behavioral intention of an individual is influenced by three factors, namely attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. When an individual holds a favorable attitude toward a particular behavior, along with experiencing higher social support and a stronger sense of control over performing the behavior, they are more persuaded to have higher adoption intention. Jang et al., (2015) indicated that attitudes, normative beliefs, and behavioral control favorably influence the consumers’ intention to visit an eco-friendly restaurant. Regarding plant-based diets, the effect of subjective norms on the adoption of plant-based diets resulted in mixed results. Some studies show a significant relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention (Bakr et al., 2023; Chen, 2022), while Pandey et al. (2021) observed that social influence does not affect consumers’ intention to consume a plant-based diet.

Perceived behavioral control refers to an individual’s perception of the difficulty in performing a specific behavior influenced by factors that can either support or hinder it (Fishbein and Ajzen, 2010). Price, familiarity, cooking competency (Niimi et al., 2022), and availability are the major barriers to the adoption of plant-based diets (Contini et al., 2020). Prior research observed the significant positive relationship between perceived behavioral control and consumers’ adoption intention of meat alternatives (Bakr et al., 2023; Chang and Chen, 2022; Shen and Chen, 2020). Based on this investigation, the following hypotheses have been formulated.

Attitude toward PBMA will positively influence consumers’ intention to adopt PBMA

Subjective norms will positively influence consumers’ intention to adopt PBMA

Perceived behavioral control will positively influence consumers’ intention to adopt the PBMA

The theoretical model proposed by Bakr et al. (2023), based on Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior, was adapted and modified to include relevant variables such as perceived importance of meat, initial reactions to the food choice, naturalness as a food choice motive, and related motivational factors. These modifications were incorporated into the research model for understanding consumers’ adoption intention regarding PBMA. By combining Bakr’s framework with these modifications, the significant factors influencing an individual’s behavior in adopting PBMA are evaluated using empirical research methods. The related research hypotheses are visually represented in Figure 1.

An overall sample of 285 responses was collected through a direct survey using a structured questionnaire in Coimbatore city of South India. The data were collected during the period of three months from March 2024 to May 2024. Given the exploratory nature of the study and the relatively new concept of PBMA in the Indian market, purposive sampling was employed to specifically target individuals who have tasted PBMA, as their direct experience is essential for understanding the factors influencing their adoption. With limited market penetration and consumer awareness in the study area, the population of individuals who have tasted PBMA remains small, which further narrows the sample pool. Table 1 depicts the demographic characteristics of surveyed respondents.

The questionnaire comprised a different set of statements consistent with previous research (Bakr et al., 2023). Before conducting the survey, informed consent was obtained from the respondents, and all agreed to take part in it. The respondents answered the questionnaire by themselves, and the survey took approximately 10 min per participant. Before conducting the survey, basic information regarding PBMA was shared. All the items were answered on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). The questionnaire consisted of three parts. Part one dealt with demographic characteristics and dietary patterns of respondents. Part two consisted of the perception of respondents toward PBMA, and Part 3 consisted of items describing PBMA purchase intention based on previous studies. The following scales were used in the questionnaire to assess the distinct variables. The relevant motivational factors, such as healthiness influence, were selected from the “impact of the healthiness of food choices” scale (Roininen et al., 1999), and environmental concern was adapted from the research studies (Roberts, 1996; Verbeke et al., 2010). In addition, the animal welfare construct was based on de Graaf et al. (2016). Food choice determinants measuring health, sustainability, sensory appeal, naturalness, and cruelty-free were adopted from Steptoe et al. (1995). The food curiosity scale was based on Ueda (2017), and the food neophobia scale was adapted from Pliner and Hobden (1992). Perceived meat importance, consisting of three statements, was based on De Koning et al. (2020). The TPB components, including attitude and subjective norms scales, were adopted from Chen (2007), whereas perceived behavioral control and adoption intention scales were based on Bakr et al. (2023).

The partial least squares structural equation modeling was performed using Smart PLS 4 statistical package and IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0. The analytical tools, including descriptive statistics (frequency and percentage), measurement model analysis (Reliability and Validity), structural model assessment (Path relationship), and overall fitness of the models, were employed to evaluate the proposed hypothesis.

The structural model was assessed to evaluate the factors influencing consumers’ attitude and adoption intention of PBMA, following the procedure outlined by Hair et al. (2021). The initial step involved collinearity assessment by examining the inner variance inflation factor values with all construct score values below five. The second step evaluated the significance of the proposed relationship based on path coefficients with a T value higher than 1.96 at a 0.05 significance level. Out of 14 hypothesized relationships in the model, 8 were statistically significant (P < 0.05). In the next step, the goodness of fit (R² values) was evaluated to ensure the model’s explanatory power. The R² values ranged from 0.744 (Attitude) to 0.770 (PBMA Adoption intention), and significantly lies within the acceptable limit.

The hypothesis testing results (Table 4) showed that “Animal welfare concern” (H3) has a significant positive impact on attitude toward PBMA with a path coefficient of 0.170 and a P-value of 0.001. Similarly, food choice determinants such as health (H4), sensory appeal (H5), and sustainability (H7) positively influenced the attitude toward PBMA. As hypothesized, the attitude toward PBMA was negatively influenced by factors such as perceived meat importance and food neophobia, hence validating H9 and H11. All relationships within the TPB were significant, except for subjective norms, which, although positively related to adoption intention, did not reach statistical significance, thereby confirming H12 and H13. In contrast, factors such as healthiness influence (H1), environmental concern (H2), and food choice determinants including naturalness (H6) and cruelty free (H8) do not significantly influence consumers’ attitude, leading to the rejection of these hypotheses.

Consumers’ adoption of PBMA is a complex process influenced by various attitudinal and cognitive perceptions. The present study found that food neophobia had the strongest negative impact on consumers’ attitudes toward PBMA. These results suggest that the resistance to trying new foods poses a major barrier to the adoption of PBMA. This may be attributed to the unfamiliarity with alternative meat, which can lead to distrust among consumers. Furthermore, when evaluating the moral and legal acceptability of innovative food products, individuals are more inclined to focus on negative aspects, which impede the acceptance of such foods (Hwang et al., 2020). Similarly, perceived meat importance in terms of nutritional and sensory aspects had a significant negative impact on consumers’ attitudes toward PBMA as indicated by De Koning et al. (2020). It could be inferred that consumers might perceive traditional meat as a healthier dietary choice due to its nutritional composition and sensory qualities, which impose resistance to adopting PBMA, as they might feel that alternatives cannot fully replicate the health benefits associated with traditional meat.

This study shows the impact of animal welfare concern as an altruistic motive on the consumers’ acceptance of PBMA. The study findings indicated that the animal welfare concern had a significant positive impact on the attitude toward PBMA, showing that an individual’s personal belief significantly influences a consumer’s attitude. This finding is similar to a study related to attitude toward vegan products (Miguel et al., 2020). Given the growing emphasis on concern for the ethical treatment of animals, consumers who prioritize animal welfare are likely to reduce or avoid products related to exploitation or animal cruelty and often seek alternatives. Despite the findings, the study revealed that “cruelty-free” as a food choice determinant had a negative but nonsignificant relationship with consumers’ attitudes. This may be attributed to the possibility that meat avoiders or reducers experience confusion due to the product’s similarity to traditional meat. Such resemblance might lead to a negative perception of PBMA, as observed by Wobker et al. (2015). As expected, other motives such as healthiness influence and environmental concern had a positive relationship with consumers’ attitude, but were not significant. On the other hand, health and sustainability as food choice determinants were found to have a significant positive association with the attitude toward PBMA. It could be inferred that consumers increasingly recognize the benefits of plant-based diets in promoting personal health and reducing environmental impact, which positively influences their attitudes. These results are consistent with previous research on the acceptance of eco-friendly products, including PBMA (Miguel et al., 2020; Profeta et al., 2021). As hypothesized, sensory appeal was found to have a significant positive impact on consumers’ attitude toward PBMA. When PBMA closely resembles the taste and texture of traditional meat and are competitively priced, they are more likely to successfully replace meat. The greater the sensory appeal, the more favorable the consumers’ attitude toward PBMA. The results were in line with the findings of Lee and Yun (2015).

The findings of the study strongly highlight the relevance of the Theory of Planned Behavior in determining the consumers’ intention to adopt PBMA. The study found that attitude toward PBMA has a significant impact on consumers’ intention to adopt PBMA (β = 0.661). Similarly, perceived behavioral control addressing the barriers impeding PBMA adoption (availability, price, and cooking ability) was found to have a significant positive effect on consumers’ PBMA adoption intention (β = 0.262), reflecting the consumers’ ability to overcome the barriers such as high price and limited availability. These findings match with the results of previous studies (Bakr et al., 2023; Wang and Scrimgeour, 2021). However, the effect of subjective norms on consumer behavioral intention was positive but not significant.

India, with its large vegetarian and flexitarian population, holds a significant potential for the growth of PBMA markets. The sector can be expanded by tailoring PBMA products to meet diverse regional and cultural preference boosting adoption across the country. Investing in research and development to enhance both nutritional and sensory qualities of PBMA along with eco-friendly packaging can attract wider audience. Many consumers experience food neophobia, particularly toward new technologies and unfamiliar food products, which may hinder adoption. Therefore, increasing awareness and educating consumers on sustainable benefits of PBMAs through targeted campaigns in addition to expanding retail presence are essential for achieving wider consumer acceptance. However, the higher cost of PBMA compared to conventional meat could limit their adoption among price-sensitive consumers. Pricing is a crucial factor that must be addressed to make PBMA more attractive and to increase market share. This challenge can be mitigated by focusing on cost reduction through economies of scale and offering a variety of products. As PBMA become a popular sustainable choice, addressing pricing concerns and developing more cost-effective, energy-efficient production techniques could further expand the market while catering to the unique preferences of Indian consumers.