For chemical analysis, the chemical composition of chickpea, lentil, and quinoa samples was analyzed, including moisture content, ash content, crude fat, crude protein, and crude fiber, which were quantified according to their relevant procedures.

Using an oven with a forced draught (Memmet, Germany) set to a temperature of 105±5°C, samples were collected from chickpea, lentil, and quinoa and analyzed for their moisture content, according to method No. 44-I5A AOAC 2000.

As designated in method No. 46-30 2000, samples of chickpea, lentil, and quinoa were taken, and their protein content was analyzed using Kjeldahl’s method.

The fat content percentage was observed, and samples were taken for the determination of fat content. The Soxhlet apparatus was used for the determination, according to method No. 30-25, AOAC 2000.

For the analysis of crude fiber, samples of chickpea, lentil, and quinoa were taken, following the instructions outlined in Method No. 32-10, AOAC 2000.

A muffle furnace, set to a temperature of 550°C, was used to evaluate the ash content of chickpea, lentil, and quinoa samples by burning them. After burning, a desiccator was used to cool the remaining sample, which was then weighed. The ash content was determined by calculating the variance between the sample’s initial weight and the weight after burning in the muffle furnace. The calculated ash content is expressed as a percentage, according to method No. 08-01, AOAC 2000.

According to method AACC, 2000, iron, sodium, copper, zinc, magnesium, potassium, and calcium are typically determined using two methods: flame photometry and atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

Vitamins were calorimetrically determined using the method of Lebiedzinska et al. (2007), where thiamine is quantified and separated by the HPLC technique. Riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin B-12 were also determined using a chromatographic method (reverse-phase).

A high-speed amino acid analyzer (LA8080 amino SAAYA, High Tec Solution, Japan) was used to determine the amino acids in chickpeas, lentils, and quinoa, according to the technique presented by Biel et al. (2009). After the amino acids were isolated using the cation exchange column, the ninhydrin method was applied to evaluate the amino acids with a UV/VIS spectrophotometer.

The moisture content of chickpeas, lentils, and quinoa was analyzed through physicochemical characterization. The data showed that the mean moisture content of chickpeas was 16.1%, lentils was 17%, and quinoa was 8.75%. The moisture content of lentils was higher than that of the other samples.

The results indicated that the moisture content of chickpeas was 16.1%, which was quite similar to the research conducted by Eissa AH et al. (2010), who found that moisture content ranged from 11.6% to 25.4%. Another researcher, Chelladurai et al. (2020), reported that the moisture content of lentils was 16%, consistent with the results of our study. Jan et al. (2019) investigated the moisture content of quinoa and found it to be 10%. To determine how fermentation affects the structure, quality, digestibility, and non-nutritive components of lentil proteins (Lens culinaris), red in digestibility, secondary protein structural components, sugars, and phenolic compounds were examined. Water kefir seeds were used for the fermentation process. At the end of the fermentation on day 5, the original pH of the unfermented lentil proteins dropped from 6.8 to pH 3.4. Over the 5 days of fermentation, protein digestibility improved from 76.4% to 84.1%. After two days of fermentation, the total phenolic content increased from 443.4 to 792.6 mg GAE/100g, with the sum of detected phenolic compounds from HPLC analysis reaching about 500 mg/100g, as reported by Alrosan et al. (2021). Therefore, all the results from previous investigations are in accordance with our study.

The protein content was evaluated, and the mean ratios of all three samples were analyzed carefully. The mean protein content in chickpeas, lentils, and quinoa was 20%, 21%, and 12.9%, respectively. Therefore, the protein content was higher in lentils compared to quinoa and chickpeas.

The mean results align with some previous findings. Boukid et al. (2021) investigated protein content and found it to be between 17% and 22%, which is comparable to our findings. Another researcher, Lake et al. (2021), reported that the protein content of lentils was 22%. A study by Bawachkar et al. (2021) reported a protein content of 14.43%, which is similar to the findings of this research.

Rachwa-Rosiak et al. (2015) explained that triglycerides make up the majority of neutral lipids, while lecithin makes up the majority of polar lipids. Chickpea grains contain a significant amount of important unsaturated fatty acids in their fat. Lentils, on the other hand, have a relatively low fat content. Fat content was analyzed through physicochemical characterization. The mean values for fat content in chickpeas, lentils, and quinoa were 7.7%, 1.2%, and 4.06%, respectively. The fat content in chickpeas is higher than in the other samples, while lentils have a lower fat content. A study by Ando et al. (2002) reported a fat content of 6.5% in quinoa, which is comparable to the fat content found in chickpeas in our study. Other researchers, Madurapperumage et al. (2021), found that the fat content in chickpeas ranged from 3.8% to 10.2%. Faris et al. (2013) reported that the fat content in lentils was 1.1%, which aligns with the findings of the current study.

The mean values of the results indicated that the crude fiber content in the chickpea sample was 12.36%, in lentils was 14%, and in quinoa was 14.1%. The fiber content in lentils and quinoa was higher compared to chickpeas. Overall, the results showed that all three samples have a rich amount of fiber. Singh et al. (2016) suggested that the fiber content in lentils was 15%, which is comparable to our results. An investigation by Wallace et al. (2016) reported the fiber content in chickpeas as 12%, and the fiber content in quinoa was 13.9%.

The results analyzed the ash content of all three samples. The mean ash content in chickpeas, lentils, and quinoa was 3.57%, 3.14%, and 3.13%, respectively. Ando et al. (2002) evaluated the ash content in quinoa as 3.0%. Researchers, including Ramdath et al. (2020), observed the ash content in lentils to be 3.13%. Another study conducted on chickpeas showed the ash content to be 3.54%, as reported by Khattak et al. (2021), as shown in Table 1.

Quinoa is higher in quality protein and contains more nutrients than most other cereals. It is rich in several minerals, including manganese, phosphorus, copper, folate, iron, magnesium, and zinc, among others. Lentils are high in fiber and minerals, making them a healthy choice for managing heart health, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels. The calcium, magnesium, fiber, and other nutrients found in chickpeas and other legumes contribute to strong bones.

Table 2 shows the results of the different mineral content in the quinoa, lentils, and chickpeas samples. The mean values of mineral content evaluated in quinoa were 880 mg/kg for Ca, 98.4 mg/kg for Fe, 3625 mg/kg for Mg, 4064 mg/kg for P, 201 mg/kg for Na, 24.3 mg/kg for Zn, and 79.63 mg/kg for Cu. The mean mineral content in chickpeas was 1304 mg/100g for Ca, 4.61 mg/100g for Fe, 403 mg/100g for Mg, 253 mg/100g for P, 2133 mg/100g for Na, 16 mg/100g for Zn, and 3.33 mg/100g for Cu. The mean mineral content of lentils was evaluated as 58 mg/100g for Ca, 7.8 mg/100g for Fe, 125 mg/100g for Mg, 457 mg/100g for P, 8 mg/100g for Na, 5.3 mg/100g for Zn, and 1.16 mg/100g for Cu.

Similar outcomes have been reported by various studies. Nowak et al. (2015) conducted a study with results similar to those found for quinoa. Additionally, Wallace et al. (2016) had comparable outcomes for chickpeas. Faris et al. (2013) conducted a study in which the results for lentils were in accordance with our findings.

Vitamins are water-soluble compounds that are essential for human and animal health. They are categorized into two classes based on their solubility: lipophilic (fat-soluble) and hydrophilic (water-soluble). Vitamins have traditionally been among the most extensively used chemical agents to enhance the nutritional value of food products. Chickpeas contain a moderate amount of calories along with several vitamins and minerals. Vitamin E is a crucial component of quinoa because, at the cell membrane level, it acts as an antioxidant, preventing free radical damage to the fatty acids in cell membranes (Repo-Carrasco et al., 2003). Table 3 shows the main vitamins found in quinoa, chickpeas, and lentils. Higher amounts of ascorbic acid (67 mg/100g), thiamine (1.83 mg/100g), riboflavin (2.03 mg/100g), niacin (23.3 mg/100g), and α-tocopherol (29 mg/100g) are present in chickpeas compared to quinoa and lentils. Lentils are particularly high in folate (477.5 µg/100g).

Vega-Gálvez et al. (2010) evaluated the vitamin content in quinoa, which aligns with our results. They reported the following vitamin contents in quinoa: ascorbic acid (C) 4.0 mg/100g, α-tocopherol (E) 5.37 mg/100g, thiamine (B1) 0.38 mg/100g, riboflavin (B2) 0.39 mg/100g, and niacin (B3) 1.06 mg/100g. Wallace et al. (2016) observed the vitamin content in chickpeas, with the following results: ascorbic acid (C) 60 mg/100g, α-tocopherol (E) 30 mg/100g, thiamine (B1) 1.5 mg/100g, riboflavin (B2) 1.7 mg/100g, niacin (B3) 20 mg/100g, and folate 400 µg/100g. Takruri et al. (2013) also concluded similar results for lentils.

Lentils, chickpeas, and quinoa are significant sources of essential amino acids. Like most other plant-based protein sources, chickpeas do not provide a complete protein, as they lack all nine essential amino acids. Chickpeas are particularly high in arginine and lysine but low in methionine and cysteine, which are sulfur-containing amino acids. Lentils contain essential amino acids such as isoleucine and lysine, but are generally low in methionine and cysteine. Despite being a small seed, quinoa is rich in protein. Unlike some other plant proteins, quinoa is considered a complete protein, meaning it contains all nine essential amino acids that the human body cannot produce on its own.

Table 4 shows the results of all amino acids in the three grains. The total amount of amino acids in chickpeas is 38.6g/100g. The mean values are presented, with chickpeas having the highest amounts of leucine (7.13g/100g) and phenylalanine (5.7g/100g). The total amino acid content in lentils is 37.89g/100g, with the highest amounts of leucine (7.2g/100g) and lysine (7.26g/100g). Quinoa contains the richest amount of amino acid leucine (7.03g/100g), and the total amino acids in quinoa amount to 34.93g/100g.

Miranda et al. (2012) reported similar findings regarding the amino acids in quinoa grains, with the highest quantity of leucine being 6.8g/100g. Samaranayaka et al. (2017) also found results that align with our study. The findings for chickpeas and lentils in the current study are consistent with previous research.

Ganesan et al. (2017) explained that lentils have the highest total phenolic concentration. Lentils, rich in polyphenols, offer potential health benefits as alternative and complementary treatments, including antioxidant, antiviral, cardioprotective, antibacterial, nephroprotective, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic properties. Chickpeas were also investigated for their phenolic profiles, though they contain fewer phenolic acids compared to other grains. Quinoa, on the other hand, had the highest concentration of bound phenolics. A higher phenolic content in quinoa was associated with stronger antioxidant properties, as well as the inhibition of pancreatic lipase and beta-glucosidase activities.

The mean values of all phenolic acids are presented in Table 5. The highest concentration of phenolic acids is found in quinoa grains, while the lowest is found in chickpeas, as shown in the table. Liu et al. (2020) reported similar results for lentils in line with our study. Similar findings for quinoa were observed in a study by Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al. (2010). Quintero-Soto et al. (2018) also reported similar results for chickpeas.

Antioxidants and phenolic compounds are helpful in improving human health (Abd-El Ghany et al., 2023; Tahir et al., 2024; Rueangsri et al., 2025). These antioxidants have a positive effect on nutrient digestibility (Hegazy et al., 2023). Wang et al. (2021) explained that chickpeas contain various beneficial and abundant compounds. The bioactivities of the chickpea plant have been observed in several areas of the plant. Lentil (Lens culinaris; Fabaceae) is high in polyphenol compounds that possess a variety of health-promoting characteristics. Lentils, being high in polyphenols, may have a positive effect on human well-being. Polyphenols, which include flavonoids, phenolic acids, and tannins, are secondary plant metabolites with bioactive properties that contribute to a wide range of physiological benefits, including anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor effects, according to Benavente-Garca et al. (2008).

Phenolic compounds have antioxidant effect (Ramaiyulis et al., 2023). The total phenolic content of chickpeas was 124.33 mg/100g, lentils 28 mg/100g, and quinoa 54.66 mg/100g. The highest phenolic content is present in chickpeas among all. The mean result for the total phenolic content (TPC) of chickpeas was 124.33 mg/100g. León-López et al. (2020) obtained similar results in their study, evaluating the total phenolic content at 128.3 mg/100g. Kalogeropoulos et al. (2010) discussed the total phenolic content of lentils in their research and found similar results, with a content of 26 mg/100g. On the other hand, a study by Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al. (2010) investigated the total phenolic content in quinoa, reporting values ranging from 16.8 to 59.7 mg/100g.

Flavonoids are group of antioxidant compounds found in many different plants, and they have diverse biological activities (Tuyen et al., 2025). Flavonoids have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and blood clot-inhibiting properties. Each of these traits supports overall health (Anwar et al., 2023). On the other hand, the results showed that the mean flavonoid content in chickpeas was 27.36 mg/100g, in lentils 151.66 mg/100g, and in quinoa 126.66 mg/100g. The highest flavonoid content was observed in lentils. Similar to the total phenolic content, total flavonoids have been studied in many researches. The mean flavonoid content in chickpeas was 27.36 mg/100g. León-López et al. (2020) reported similar findings, evaluating the flavonoid content in chickpeas at 27.6 mg/100g. Xu et al. (2011) also found a high amount of flavonoids in their research, estimating the flavonoid content in lentils at 221 mg/100g, which aligns with our study.

Quercetin being a notable polyphenol exhibit strong antioxidant and antibacterial potential (Ahmad et al., 2024). As shown in Table 7, the amount of quercetin was highest in quinoa at 19.83 mg/100g, followed by lentils at 1.77 mg/100g, and the lowest amount was found in chickpeas at 0.89 mg/100g. Hirose et al. (2010) reported the total quercetin content in quinoa as 22.5 mg/100g, which aligns with our findings. Han et al. (2008) evaluated the quercetin content in lentils as 1.78 mg/100g and in chickpeas as 0.84 mg/100g.

Kaempferol is a flavonoid found naturally in a variety of plants and plant-derived foods. It is known to reduce the risk of chronic diseases, particularly cancer. As shown in Table 6, the kaempferol content in chickpeas was 48.9 mg/100g, in lentils was 50.5 mg/100g, and in quinoa was 43.23 mg/100g. Díaz-Batalla et al. (2006) investigated that the kaempferol content in lentils was 52.3 mg/100g, which aligns with our study. Another researcher, Lee et al. (2018), conducted a study in which he reported that the kaempferol content in quinoa was 45.12 mg/100g.

Phytosterols are lipophilic molecules that resemble cholesterol in structure. According to intervention trials, epidemiological evidence, and meta-analyses, phytosterols have a significant impact on lowering cholesterol levels in individuals (Graf et al., 2010). Phytosterols reduce blood cholesterol by competing with cholesterol for absorption in the intestine and inhibiting the formation of atherogenic lipoproteins in both the liver and intestines (Ho and Pal, 2005). As shown in Table 8, the phytosterol content in chickpeas (204.6 mg/100g) is higher than in the other grains. Lentils (154 mg/100g) and quinoa (116.3 mg/100g) have lower amounts of phytosterols and their constituents.

The phytosterol content in chickpeas and lentils was found to be 204.6 mg/100g and 154 mg/100g, respectively. These results were similar to those evaluated by Singh et al. (2017), who reported phytosterol content in chickpeas (205 mg/100g) and lentils (158 mg/100g). Navruz-Varli et al. (2016) suggested that quinoa contained 118 mg/100g of phytosterol content. These researchers also analyzed other phytosterol constituents. Ryan et al. (2007) reported that the β-sitosterol content in chickpeas and lentils was 159.8 mg/100g and 123.4 mg/100g, respectively, as shown in Table 7.